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Title: Amateurism, Player Compensation, and College Sports an Analysis of the Perceived Effects of a Free Market Model on the National Collegiate Athletic Association and Three Stakeholders of Division I Athletics.
Creator: Hart, Steven, Kim, Amy C. H. (Amy Chan Hyung), James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Xue, Hanhan, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: The debate about student-athlete compensation in college athletics has received increased media attention in the past decade. As many parties continue to call for the National Collegiate Athletic Association (the NCAA) to reform its organizational model and rulebook, commentators have proposed several alternatives to the current amateurism model. Among the most commonly discussed is a free market model. This model, arguably, would have the most significant impact on the NCAA and its...
Show moreThe debate about student-athlete compensation in college athletics has received increased media attention in the past decade. As many parties continue to call for the National Collegiate Athletic Association (the NCAA) to reform its organizational model and rulebook, commentators have proposed several alternatives to the current amateurism model. Among the most commonly discussed is a free market model. This model, arguably, would have the most significant impact on the NCAA and its stakeholders. Critics and proponents of such a model disagree as to what the impacts would be on the NCAA and its ability to achieve its organizational purposes, including governing the fairness of competition and establishing rules defining the amateur status of student-athletes (Beggs et. al., 2004). The purpose of this study was to investigate managers and stakeholder groups' perceptions of a free market system on the organizational structure and the ability of the NCAA to achieve its organizational goals, and the impact on three key stakeholders: Division I athletic departments, Division I student-athletes, and sports law attorneys. Since much of the current discussion about the future of the NCAA is proffered by industry commentators, celebrities, and sports writers, there is a need to identify and gain perspective from key stakeholders who would directly affect and be affected by a change to the current student-athlete compensation model. Stakeholder theory was used as a framework for substantiating the importance of key stakeholders in college athletics. Stakeholder theory helps an organization explore the interests, expectations and perspectives of those who affect and are affected by its actions insomuch a decision maker can accordingly develop appropriate strategies and policies for responding to both internal and external influences (Hester, Bradley, & Adams, 2012). The three stakeholder groups chosen for this study included division I intercollegiate athletic administrators, division I student-athletes, and sports law attorneys. These stakeholder groups were selected because of their potential to be impacted by the implementation of a free market model. By way of understanding the importance of the three key stakeholders, this thesis focuses on exploring their perception of: 1) what a free market model is for intercollegiate athletics, and 2) how such a free market model would potentially impact the development of the NCAA and stakeholders themselves. To facilitate the study, semi-structured interviews with eight participants were conducted. The participants included two members from each of the above-mentioned stakeholder groups (i.e. two division I student-athletes, two sports law attorneys and two division I athletic administrators) as well as two NCAA committee members. Those participants were chosen through a process of purposive sampling created through a set of specific criteria (e.g. only student athletes who played football or basketball were selected to participate). Semi-structured interview questions were developed based on the research questions listed in this study. All interviews were recorded and participants' answers were transcribed. The transcribed interviews were reviewed and key words and themes emerging from the interviews were identified. The data was then analyzed using conventional qualitative content analysis. Results of the study revealed that stakeholders of the NCAA have varying ideas of what a free market model is for intercollegiate athletics. Both NCAA committee members described a free market for intercollegiate athletics as a pay-for-play model. The attorneys' perceptions were related to a traditional economic definition of a free market. Other ideas were similar to a professional model where salary caps are negotiated through a process of collective bargaining. A key finding from this study is that there are differences in stakeholder perceptions of how a free market model would potentially impact the development of the NCAA and stakeholders. Many of the perceptions identified amongst all or most of the stakeholders interviewed are uncommon in the media narratives about the future of the NCAA. Future implications of the findings on stakeholder theory were discussed.
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Date Issued: 2019
Identifier: 2019_Summer_Hart_fsu_0071N_15451
Format: Thesis

Title: LGB Sponsorship Stigma: An Athlete's Sexuality and Its Effect on Their Endorsement Effectiveness.
Creator: Pereira, Benjamin R. (Benjamin Rudy), James, Jeffrey D., Du, James, Kim, Amy C. H., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: In 2018 we continue to live in a divisive society, including divisions across racial and gender boundaries and among those with different sexual orientations. Athletes today, partially as a result of the pervasiveness of social media, are choosing to be more visible, and share more of their personal lives, many times in an effort to use sport as a platform for change. This study investigated whether athletes’ personal lives, particularly their sexual orientation, effects their ability to...
Show moreIn 2018 we continue to live in a divisive society, including divisions across racial and gender boundaries and among those with different sexual orientations. Athletes today, partially as a result of the pervasiveness of social media, are choosing to be more visible, and share more of their personal lives, many times in an effort to use sport as a platform for change. This study investigated whether athletes’ personal lives, particularly their sexual orientation, effects their ability to serve as a brand endorser. Historically, Lesbian-Gay-Bisexual-Transgender-Queer (LGBTQ) athletes have chosen to refrain from discussing their sexual orientation. LGBTQ athletes from across the spectrum, both out and closeted, have expressed that a main reason for not “coming out” at all, or coming out after gaining a level of celebrity, typically post retirement from their sport, is a fear of losing endorsements and/or sponsorship deals. Data was collected from a group of students (n=217) from a large public university in the Southeastern United States. A 2 (Male/Female) x 2 (Heterosexual/Homosexual Athlete) between-subjects experimental design was used to examine perceptions of endorser fit, attitudes and purchase intentions. The results signaled that public knowledge of an athlete’s sexuality does not have a significant effect on the athlete’s ability to serve as a brand endorser, in the context of attitude towards the endorser, brand, product, and purchase intent.
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Date Issued: 2018
Identifier: 2018_Su_Pereira_fsu_0071N_14805
Format: Thesis

Title: The Official Supporter's Group Section: Conceptualizing and Measuring Its Effect on Sport Consumer Satisfaction and Behavioral Outcomes.
Creator: Reid, Charles Elliott, Kim, Amy C. H., Gray, Edward G., James, Jeffrey D., Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: Attendance at sporting events remains a vital part of sporting contests, as spectators have been shown to have a significant impact upon the atmosphere of an event (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2012). As more attractive options for consuming sporting events continue to arise (e.g., higher-definition televisions, game watch parties, etc.), sport managers should seek to better understand what elements of in-person spectating are most important for repeat attendance. Sport stadium atmosphere...
Show moreAttendance at sporting events remains a vital part of sporting contests, as spectators have been shown to have a significant impact upon the atmosphere of an event (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2012). As more attractive options for consuming sporting events continue to arise (e.g., higher-definition televisions, game watch parties, etc.), sport managers should seek to better understand what elements of in-person spectating are most important for repeat attendance. Sport stadium atmosphere researchers have identified other spectators as a positive source of influence for future attendance intentions (Biscaia, Correia Rosado, Maroco, & Ross, 2012; Lee, Lee, Seo, & Green, 2012; Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2012). However, spectators have only been studied in aggregate, as though all spectators were homogenous and part of one entire group. Through the present research I evaluated a specific sub-group, the Official Supporter’s Group (OSG) Section, of the spectating population for its effects on the non-OSG spectators in attendance at Major League Soccer games. The stated purpose of the OSG Section is to assist their team through chants, singing, and cheering. As a means of achieving this goal, those within the OSG Section attempt to involve other spectators outside the section to increase the volume and intensity of support for their team. The existence of these supporter’s groups is explained through Social Identity Theory and Complexity Theory. OSGs and the OSG Section are theorized to be sub-components of the Sport Stadium Atmosphere (SSA) framework (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010; Uhrich & Koenigstorfer, 2009). This framework consists of three dimensions of environmental stimuli (organizer-induced, game-induced, and spectator-induced) that have a positive, direct relationship with consumer affective responses (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010). This research was conducted to evaluate the impact of those making up the OSG Section as an influential aspect of the spectator-induced dimension. The two goals of this research were to add to the SSA framework (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010; Uhrich & Koenigstorfer, 2009) in two ways: 1) by evaluating the effect of a previously unstudied aspect of the spectating population: the OSG Section, and 2) by including satisfaction as a measure of the effects of the stadium atmosphere upon the consumer. Three stages were employed to investigate the goals above. First, a questionnaire was developed to survey spectators of Major League Soccer (MLS) games during the 2018 season. Item-development processes were undertaken, based on the recommendations of Hinkin’s (1998) scale development process, to evaluate perceived effects of the organizer-induced stimuli, game-induced stimuli, the influence of the OSG Section, and outcome variables of satisfaction, intention to return, and word-of-mouth recommendations. Second, a pilot study was conducted to evaluate the new items developed and to refine the instrument for the main study. Finally, a main study was employed to collect data from a second sample of the population (MLS spectators) using the refined survey instrument. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling techniques were used to analyze collected data and test the hypothesized relationships. The members and actions of those comprising the OSG Section were found to have a significant, positive relationship with both resulting spectator emotions and satisfaction. Further, there is evidence to further confirm the relationship between satisfaction and behavioral intentions (Kuenzel & Yassim, 2007; Matsuoka et al., 2003). Practical implications, limitations, and future research directions are all discussed in the final chapter.
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Date Issued: 2018
Identifier: 2018_Su_Reid_fsu_0071E_14814
Format: Thesis

Title: Social Legacy of the Olympic Games from a Social Innovation Perspective.
Creator: Kim, Sanghoon, Kim, Amy C. H., Newman, Joshua I., Xue, Hanhan, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: Recently, cities that bid for hosting the Olympic Games have withdrawn due to public referendums and lack of political support. Although the International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) efforts to underline the importance of the Olympic legacy at a series of symposiums such as “The legacy of the Olympic Games 1984-2000” and the “Olympic Agenda of 2020”, numerous media platforms and studies have presented the negative consequences of hosting the Olympics. Compared to other legacies, the social...
Show moreRecently, cities that bid for hosting the Olympic Games have withdrawn due to public referendums and lack of political support. Although the International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) efforts to underline the importance of the Olympic legacy at a series of symposiums such as “The legacy of the Olympic Games 1984-2000” and the “Olympic Agenda of 2020”, numerous media platforms and studies have presented the negative consequences of hosting the Olympics. Compared to other legacies, the social legacy of the Olympics was relatively overlooked until recently. Although the IOC has set objectives to uphold the positive aspects of its social legacy, the development of practical strategies to address the socially-driven issues caused by hosting the Olympics still remains as a challenge to overcome. In efforts to fill this gap, the purpose of this study is to analyze the current process and evaluation system for the Olympic social legacy based on the frame of newspaper coverage, as well as discussing the strategies on how to achieve social innovation through the Olympic Games based on the SIOG model. I employed the media framing as the theoretical framework and conduct a content analysis of newspaper coverage in the U.S, The New York Times, USA Today, Los Angeles Times, and The Washington Post published between 1990 and 2016. The frame found in newspaper articles about the Olympic social legacy in the present study enabled me to investigate how the residents of the host city have experienced the social legacy of the Olympic Games and the problems behind the current process (Entman, 1993; Misener, 2012). In addition, the result of the analysis provided implications of how the Olympic social legacy needs to be planned and managed based on the SIOG model (Entman, 1993; Misener, 2012). The frames identified from the newspaper coverage revealed that there was a gap between the resident’s needs and actual provisions provided by hosting the Olympic Games. Overall, the social legacies planned by the organizers and committees did not work effectively before, during, and after the Olympic Games. In addition, By applying the social innovation framework to the social legacy of the Olympic Games, hosting the Olympic Games will provide solutions for problems focusing on needs that are unmet, which can resolve these various problems and make the integrated society sustainable.
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Date Issued: 2018
Identifier: 2018_Su_Kim_fsu_0071N_14655
Format: Thesis

Title: An Examination of the Challenges and Opportunities Facing Female Coaches in High Performance International Track and Field.
Creator: Proctor, Wilma Fiona, Newman, Joshua I., Ferris, Gerald R., Giardina, Michael D., Xue, Hanhan, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: The number of females participating in high-performance track and field continues to increase. However, there has not been a corresponding increase in the number of women in head coaching and other leadership positions (Acosta & Carpenter, 2012; Shaw & Allen, 2009). This dearth of female coaches has been studied extensively in collegiate and professional team sports (Acosta & Carpenter, 2012; Kamphoff 2010; LaVoi & Dutove, 2012; Leberman & Palmer, 2009; Norman, 2008; Robertson & Marshall,...
Show moreThe number of females participating in high-performance track and field continues to increase. However, there has not been a corresponding increase in the number of women in head coaching and other leadership positions (Acosta & Carpenter, 2012; Shaw & Allen, 2009). This dearth of female coaches has been studied extensively in collegiate and professional team sports (Acosta & Carpenter, 2012; Kamphoff 2010; LaVoi & Dutove, 2012; Leberman & Palmer, 2009; Norman, 2008; Robertson & Marshall, 2010). Accordingly, this dissertation extends this literature by examining the phenomenon in an individual sport at the high-performance level. Some sport management scholars have concluded that sports organizations are infused with institutionalized gender ideologies that contribute to the marginalization of women (Burton, 2015; Claringbould & Knoppers, 2012, Cunningham, 2008). Therefore, combining institutional theory with gender concepts to analyze the gendered environment and gender politics of coaching in elite track and field, I examine the opportunities and challenges of female coaches as they work in a male-dominated environment. The research was guided by the following questions: (1) How do female coaches perceive the effects of institutionalized gender practices and discourse within (inter)national track and field organizations? (2) According to women coaches, how are dominant gender ideologies and gendered organizational practices diffused across various high-performance track and field organizations? (3) How does the process of gender institutionalization influence female coaches’ professional development? and (4) In what ways do female coaches respond to and develop strategies from which to navigate the process of gender institutionalization? For this analysis, I used a qualitative approach and conducted nine semi-structured interviews with elite-level female coaches from different countries to construct a representation of these gender politics and institutionalization processes, the impact on their careers, and the strategies they implemented to navigate opportunities and challenges they encountered within organizational structures of track and field. My findings show that gendered policies, practices, and behaviors marginalizing women in the sport are widespread and work across temporal, geographic, and cultural boundaries. However, the emergent themes also highligted the willingness and preparedness of the coaches to pursue their careers with dedication and determination. They articulated the desire to effect change and be a part of change. Further, they acknowledged they are already observing incremental change, as the number of women competing in the sport, working in leadership positions, and coaching at all levels of track and field has increased. This analysis adds to existing research that has highlighted institutionalized organizational processes and practices including gender ideologies as contributing factors to the marginalization of women across the sports sector and organizations (Burton, 2015; Claringbould & Knoppers, 2012, Cunningham, 2008; Knoppers, 1992). Additionally, it gives voice to a minority population of female coaches in high-performance track and field. Finally, this research underscores the existence of gender inequity in international coaching, but it also confirms the viability of change. Keywords: Gender bias, institutional theory, institutional entrepreneurship, track and field, high- performance
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Date Issued: 2018
Identifier: 2018_Sp_Proctor_fsu_0071E_14462
Format: Thesis

Title: The Impact of Acculturation and Perceived Risk on Sport Consumption Behavior of Asian and Hispanic Americans.
Creator: Kota, Ryan W. (Ryan William), James, Jeffrey D., Schwartz, Robert A., Kim, Amy C. H., Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport...
Show moreKota, Ryan W. (Ryan William), James, Jeffrey D., Schwartz, Robert A., Kim, Amy C. H., Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: Hispanics and Asians account for nearly $3 billion in annual spending in the United States (Pew, 2016), positioning them as groups of interest for marketers. In the study of ethnic populations, scholars have identified two factors that have an impact on the consumer behavior decision making process – acculturation and perceived risk (Berry, 1997; Smith Castro, 2003; Trimble, 2003). Yet, sport marketers have by-and-large failed to adequately study these elements when examining differences in...
Show moreHispanics and Asians account for nearly $3 billion in annual spending in the United States (Pew, 2016), positioning them as groups of interest for marketers. In the study of ethnic populations, scholars have identified two factors that have an impact on the consumer behavior decision making process – acculturation and perceived risk (Berry, 1997; Smith Castro, 2003; Trimble, 2003). Yet, sport marketers have by-and-large failed to adequately study these elements when examining differences in sport consumer behavior across ethnic populations (Gacio Harrolle & Trail, 2007; Kwon & Trail, 2001). Through the use of quantitative research methods (i.e., survey distribution, statistical analyses), I investigated the impact that acculturation and perceived risk have on the consumption of sport in general and American football specifically. These inquiries were guided by the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1985; 1991). I first examined the impact that acculturation has on sport in general and football specific media and merchandise consumption (i.e., Research Aim 1). Second, six elements representing perceived risk were tested as mediating factors in the relationship between acculturation and consumption of American football media and merchandise (i.e., Research Aim 2). Based on previous findings in the literature, it was expected that significant and meaningful differences would be reported across both research aims. The results were dissimilar to previous findings in the literature. Through a review of the results I concluded the respondents are not avid followers or consumers of sport. I also found that both Asian and Hispanic respondents strongly disagreed with items representing perceptions of risk when consuming American football. No significant differences in sport consumption were reported across levels of acculturation. A conclusion from these findings is that degree of familiarity with the perceived culture in the United States does not seem to impact sport consumption behavior. Evidence was also provided in favor of significant mediating effects in the relationships between acculturation and consumption of American football. However, considering the low mean scores across all risk factors the mediating effects were not found to be significant or have a practical application for this group of respondents. Based on the comprehensive results from the study, I offer theoretical and practical implications for the study of minority ethnic groups. Specifically, I call attention to the results of the open-ended question and how individuals of minority status in the United States perceive risk in their daily lives. I conclude by outlining the several issues in the current study and provide several suggestions and directions for future scholarship on sport consumer behavior and consumption among ethnic minorities specifically.
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Date Issued: 2018
Identifier: 2018_Su_Kota_fsu_0071E_14663
Format: Thesis

Title: Affective Labor Power in Sport Management: A Political Economic Analysis of Internships in the Sports Industry.
Creator: Hawzen, Matthew G., Newman, Joshua I., Giardina, Michael D., Xue, Hanhan, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: Internships are an integral part of the job-training regimen for college students in the United States today. The prevalence of internships in higher education and the U.S. economy is often justified by the compelling idea that internships provide mutual value to universities, students, and employers (Becker, 1962; Coco, 2000). The internship system, however, has become the subject of litigation in court, politicized as a regime of wage theft, and critiqued for its contribution to the...
Show moreInternships are an integral part of the job-training regimen for college students in the United States today. The prevalence of internships in higher education and the U.S. economy is often justified by the compelling idea that internships provide mutual value to universities, students, and employers (Becker, 1962; Coco, 2000). The internship system, however, has become the subject of litigation in court, politicized as a regime of wage theft, and critiqued for its contribution to the widening gulf between rich and poor in the United States (Perlin, 2011b). It is within this context that internships have become a core component of the academic field of sport management. Sport management has used internships as a preparatory practice since its inception in the late 1960s. Founded on the idea of training a managerial class of workers for the sports industry, sport management has grown from one program in 1966 to over 400 today. Sport management scholars argue that such growth comes from 1) the burgeoning sports industry’s demand for a trained workforce and 2) from the more and more students who want to enroll in the degree programs (Chelladurai, 2017; Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2011). Despite the effective demand amongst students and the labor demand from the industry, scholars are describing the labor market as over-saturated and highly competitive (DeLuca & Braunstein-Minkove, 2016). The major consequences are an uncertain job market and suboptimal labor conditions for interns and graduates. This dissertation examines the political economy of internships within and between sport management and the sports industry and explores in this context the labor power, or productive subjectivities, of sport management majors going through the internship process. I performed in-depth semi-structured to unstructured interviews with 33 sport management majors who were at three different points in the internship process (before, during, and after). The interviews were conducted to understand the production of motivations and capacities to work in sport (or the demand for sport management); the experience of being entangled in labor market competition; the expectations for, and experiences of, interning; and the formative, and ongoing, role that sport (fandom and athletic participation) plays in the lives and labor of interns jockeying for positions in the sports industry. In my analysis, I discuss the ways in which my respondents became subjects of social reproduction between sport and capitalism and subjected to affective conditions of exploitation. I provide a critique of dominant internship orthodoxy, the function of internships in the sports industry, and the active role sport management plays in reproducing conditions of exploitation. And I illustrate how the contradictions of internships under capital give rise to passion, love, hope, and optimism as irrational yet core characteristics of the sport management workforce. After having fleshed out myriad issues with internships, I conclude with a discussion about what we can do about internships in sport management to improve the labor conditions for future interns.
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Date Issued: 2018
Identifier: 2018_Su_Hawzen_fsu_0071E_14636
Format: Thesis

Title: The Circuit of Legacy Discourse: Mega-Events, Political Economy and the Beijing Olympic Games.
Creator: Pu, Haozhou, Giardina, Michael D., Proffitt, Jennifer M., Newman, Joshua I., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Florida State University, College of Education, Department of...
Show morePu, Haozhou, Giardina, Michael D., Proffitt, Jennifer M., Newman, Joshua I., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: The mega-event, or large-scale mass event, has held an enduring level of popular and political support in modern society since their creation in the late 19th century. In the current period of intense globalization, the importance placed on mega-events by national governments and global corporations has increased considerably—with hundreds of millions of dollars spent on both the bid process and the marketing, advertising, and branding of a given event. Mega-events also provide people with...
Show moreThe mega-event, or large-scale mass event, has held an enduring level of popular and political support in modern society since their creation in the late 19th century. In the current period of intense globalization, the importance placed on mega-events by national governments and global corporations has increased considerably—with hundreds of millions of dollars spent on both the bid process and the marketing, advertising, and branding of a given event. Mega-events also provide people with unique opportunities to participate in collective projects of urban regeneration, identity formation, and conspicuous consumption. This dissertation is situated within a focal area on the global phenomenon of sport mega-event. Here I draw from an interdisciplinary perspective to demystify the popular discourse on the even legacy and its related political economy implications associated with the two Olympic Games in Beijing. So far, legacy has been gaining wider currency vis-à-vis the hosting of mega-events, and there has been increased scholarly focus on related topics such as the governance, evaluation, and leveraging of legacy. In this dissertation, I examine legacy as both substantive element (e.g., urban renewal project & facility construction) and discursive discourse (e.g., the public pedagogy underpinning the circulation of certain ideological values and meanings). Being the first city ever to host both the Summer and Winter Olympics, the idea of fully capitalizing on the legacy of the previous 2008 Olympics for the future 2022 Winter Olympics has been repeatedly addressed by Beijing throughout the bidding and planning process thus far. A comprehensive evaluation of the legacy of the 2008 Olympics is beyond the remit of this project; however, by attending to the primary, publicly-promised legacies of the 2008 Olympics, an important context for post-2008 mega-events can be revealed. Thus, in this study, I consider numerous features of legacy discourse of the Olympic Games as sensitive indicators of shifting interests, power relations and ideologies at micro, meso, and macro levels in contemporary China. To do this, I structure my project within a modified “circuit of culture” model, which focuses on the articulations of interrelated moments of production, representation, and consumption (Hall, 1980; Johnson, 1986; du Gay et al., 1997). Such a framework thus provides a heuristic model to stress the situational particularities inscribing and deriving meanings and values in and through legacy discourse. As such, the analysis of each moment will be situated within a broader context of the post-2008 Olympics era and the correlative political economic landscape. In this project, I find legacy discourse as an evolving and dynamic concept that is both context-specific and influenced by multiple social actors. It is simultaneously ascribed with a variety of explicit or implicit political and economic interests. Grounded on qualitative analysis at the three moments of the circuit—representation, production and consumption—both commonalities and contradictions of the legacy discourse encountered and understood by different social groups (e.g., residents, government, and corporate) are identified. With regard to the popular legacy discourse of the 2022 Winter Olympics, an emerging neoliberal paradigm is further unveiled, which provides a viable arena to examine the political economy of sport mega-events in a post-2008 era and the associated interplays of market capitalism and state socialism in contemporary China, which have been in a state of transition. Based on the findings of this study, the appeal of mega-events to the state of China is not only underpinned by the pursuit of symbolic politics, it further entails a form of shock of spectacle that relies on the “dramatological” and “exceptional” features of modern mega-events to legitimate and further a broad spectrum of state agendas and policies (e.g., urban regeneration, economic growth, & environmental governance). Compared to the identity-politics-driven 2008 Summer Games, the legacy discourse surrounding the 2022 Winter Games is also found to be embodied with more complicated while explicit economic interests. And such economic interests are situated within an intimate interaction with consumerism, developmentalism, commercialism, with an emphasis on the rule of market. This marks a significant transition, as the previous nation-building function of the Olympic Games, appears to be complemented by, if not replaced by, a new market-building goal in the case of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics. This study therefore contributes to an indigenous and more comprehensive understanding of sport mega-events in China, particularly the interactions between the global capitalism and local politics as manifest in the dynamic legacy discourse.
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Date Issued: 2017
Identifier: FSU_SUMMER2017_Pu_fsu_0071E_14041
Format: Thesis

Title: Creating New Spectator Sport Markets: How Sport Managers and Scientists Conceive and Configure Demand.
Creator: McLeod, Christopher M., Newman, Joshua I., Holcombe, Randall G., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Giardina, Michael D., Florida State University, College of Education,...
Show moreMcLeod, Christopher M., Newman, Joshua I., Holcombe, Randall G., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Giardina, Michael D., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: Sport management researchers have not studied sport markets, despite their importance to the discipline. In this dissertation, I report on two ethnographic case studies where I worked with new sport organizations to design and conduct market research. Working in this capacity, I observed how sport management practitioners conceive of and create markets. The results add to Michel Callon’s performation program for market studies as well as his and Bruno Latour’s Actor-Network Theory. Callon...
Show moreSport management researchers have not studied sport markets, despite their importance to the discipline. In this dissertation, I report on two ethnographic case studies where I worked with new sport organizations to design and conduct market research. Working in this capacity, I observed how sport management practitioners conceive of and create markets. The results add to Michel Callon’s performation program for market studies as well as his and Bruno Latour’s Actor-Network Theory. Callon argued that economists and other market scientists make markets with their theories. This performational relationship holds for marketers, practitioners, workers, consumers, and all who take it on themselves to configure markets—the implication is that markets may be formatted innumerable ways. Thus, the valid question is not the existence of markets, or their essence, spread, or domination, but their design and, therefore, the strategies for intervention. I use a case study of a failed market research project with New Rugby and a case study of a successful market research project with City FC to show six moments of performation: 1) actionable distinctions (practitioners’ pragmatic definitions); 2) translations and reverse translations (changing another’s interests to be commensurable with one’s own); 3) enrollments (the result of a successful translation); 4) concessions (changing a statement or interest to accommodate new actors); 5) chains of reference (entities linked via mediators that transport parts of each entity to the next in line), and; 6) managerial implications (the form market statements take in market-ing practice). I describe how employees of City FC adopted sport management research, namely the Psychological Continuum Model (Funk & James, 2001; 2006), and use this example to show how sport marketing theories successfully, if weakly, performate sport markets. I also describe how various actors used market research to conceive of a market for City FC prior to and during the inaugural season. Using this and other empirical material, I devise a model for sport market development whereby organizations use actors internal to their network to create markets; they then use these markets to translate various internal and external actors, such as league commissioners, city officials, and squabbling industry experts, but also attendees, consumers, and other groups in the city. These findings show that demand markets in sport are material achievements that marketers and sociologists need to study as a type of civil engineering.
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Date Issued: 2017
Identifier: FSU_SUMMER2017_McLeod_fsu_0071E_14010
Format: Thesis

Title: Making the Sport Consumer: A Genealogical Analysis of Sport Management Research Texts.
Creator: Horner, Matthew I. (Matthew Ian), Newman, Joshua I., Proffitt, Jennifer M., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Giardina, Michael D., Florida State University, College of...
Show moreHorner, Matthew I. (Matthew Ian), Newman, Joshua I., Proffitt, Jennifer M., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Giardina, Michael D., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: In this dissertation, I examine how a particular mode of thinking has come about—that is, how an increasingly number of sport management scholars have conceived of sport-based inter-/trans-actions as "consumption" and those who engage with sport thus as "consumers." The question is important as the academic discipline seems to parallel the sport industry, contracting upon a version of sport that is overwhelmingly competitive, commercialized, professional, highly-spectacularized, and mass...
Show moreIn this dissertation, I examine how a particular mode of thinking has come about—that is, how an increasingly number of sport management scholars have conceived of sport-based inter-/trans-actions as "consumption" and those who engage with sport thus as "consumers." The question is important as the academic discipline seems to parallel the sport industry, contracting upon a version of sport that is overwhelmingly competitive, commercialized, professional, highly-spectacularized, and mass-consumed. Despite the isomorphic acceptance of market-based approaches to sport management, the field has rich practical, pedagogical, and theoretical roots in education, health, and recreation from which the present consumer-model stands as a radical departure. To resolve this ostensible contradiction, it is first necessary to understand how the present has come to be; thus, an analytic tool is needed to assay the present state of the field, evaluate its trajectory, and trace its effects. Intellectuals have long debated the merits of sport. Many agree that sport can be beneficial when it is played (cf. Zeigler, 2007). However, when sport is engaged in other ways (i.e., spectating a competition, purchasing sport paraphernalia, or asserting allegiance to a team/player), the societal benefit is a bit more opaque, drawing proponents for its cultural and economic significance and critics who challenge sport’s highly spectacularized form, rampant commercialization, and flattening effect on society, for example. Despite this tension, much of the research published in the leading sport management journals is uncritical, adopting deductive-nomothetic approaches to inquiry that produce generalizable, managerially relevant findings with clear commercial implications (see Frisby, 2005; Newman, 2014; Zeigler, 2007). At the same time, idiographic research from alternate (post-modern) onto-epistemic paradigms has been marginalized, as has scholarly inquiry in the once vibrant educational tradition (ibid). Adopting a Foucauldian perspective, I conducted a genealogical analysis of sport management research texts published in four leading journals—Journal of Sport Management (JSM), Sport Management Review (SMR), European Sport Management Quarterly (ESMQ), and Sport Marketing Quarterly (SMQ)—to examine how scholarly discourse has inscribed the field over the last 30 years. I explored how a growing faction of sport management researchers, as expressed in scholarly texts, have come to conceive sport-based engagements as the meaningful consummation of autonomous consumer choice, while also defining what consumer outcomes are possible and acceptable. Ultimately, my aim was to deconstruct the operation of power within the field that exerts itself as a diffuse code of culture governing the production of truth and knowledge. The epistemological premise for the current research project hinges on two genealogical concerns: 1) how particular versions of the sport consumer and sport consumption are made to appear true and solid; and 2) how, in sport management research discourse, certain ways of thinking about the sport consumer have become dominant over others. In pursuit of these aims, an alternate narrative of sport management research is proposed, one that recounts the historical conditions that have advanced the field towards "tautological inefficaciousness" (Newman, 2014, p. 607). Throughout this work, I demonstrate how a sport consumer knowledge culture has rendered sport engagements and identities in ways that bolster market-based approaches to how "sport" and "management" are theorized and practiced.
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Date Issued: 2016
Identifier: FSU_FA2016_Horner_fsu_0071E_13593
Format: Thesis

Title: Development and Validation of a Measure of Sports Team Reputation.
Creator: Brandon-Lai, Simon Alexander, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Ferris, Gerald R., Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Rodenberg, Ryan M., Florida State University, College of Education,...
Show moreBrandon-Lai, Simon Alexander, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Ferris, Gerald R., Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Rodenberg, Ryan M., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: In this dissertation, I developed a measure of sports team reputation. The reputation construct is one that has been the subject of decades of scholarly focus in the broader management field, but has been comparatively neglected by sport management scholars. Consumers use the reputations held by organizations to predict future behavior, and decide the ways in which they will engage (or not engage) with those organizations; thus, it is intuitively important for sports teams to cultivate and...
Show moreIn this dissertation, I developed a measure of sports team reputation. The reputation construct is one that has been the subject of decades of scholarly focus in the broader management field, but has been comparatively neglected by sport management scholars. Consumers use the reputations held by organizations to predict future behavior, and decide the ways in which they will engage (or not engage) with those organizations; thus, it is intuitively important for sports teams to cultivate and manage their reputations in order to receive positive benefits from external stakeholders (e.g., fans, spectators, general sport consumers). The development of the measure provides scholars a tool with which to empirically investigate the relationship between sports team reputation and consumer outcomes. As such, this research should be viewed as a first—and necessary—step toward increasing our understanding how reputation affects sport consumer behavior. Herein, reputation is treated as a multidimensional construct comprising consumers’ collective beliefs and attitudes about a focal unit—in this case, a sports team. Beliefs pertain to reputations for actions pertaining to performance- or character-related attributes, while attitudes are related to favorable or unfavorable overall assessments of reputation. The measure is based upon this conceptualization. To develop this measure, I followed the six-step scale development process detailed by Hinkin (1998): (1) item generation; (2) questionnaire administration; (3) initial item reduction; (4) confirmatory factor analysis; (5) construct validity; and (6) replication. In the project, I completed the first five of these steps, through which I was able to provide evidence of the validity and reliability of the measure. Using two independent samples (n = 300; n =181), I demonstrated internal validity of a three-factor measure comprising subscales for performance, character, and organizational prominence. A fourth subscale for favorability was removed. Further analysis provided evidene of acceptable model fit in the three-factor models for both samples (Sample 1: RMSEA = .078, SRMR = .049; Sample 2: RMSEA = .075, SRMR = .039). Based on the results, a significant strong positive relationship was found between organizational performance and organizational prominence (Sample 1: β = .92, p < .001; Sample 2: β = .96, p < .001); while a weaker significant negative relationship was observed between organizational character and organizational prominence (Sample 1: β = -.28, p < .001; Sample 2: β = -.24, p < .001). One conclusion from the results is that sports teams become known primarily for good high performance, and to a lesser extent, their misdeeds. Reasons for these trends are discussed, in addition to managerial implications, and limitations of the study. Ultimately, the development and validation of the present measure enables future empirical study of the reputation construct within the context of sports teams, and other organizations within the sport industry.
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Date Issued: 2016
Identifier: FSU_2016SU_BrandonLai_fsu_0071E_13296
Format: Thesis

Title: Public Goods Generated by Intercollegiate Athletics: Student's Willingness-to-Pay Increased Athletic Fees.
Creator: Howard, Mark Lindsey, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Isaac, R. Mark (Robert Mark), Rodenberg, Ryan M., Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education,...
Show moreHoward, Mark Lindsey, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Isaac, R. Mark (Robert Mark), Rodenberg, Ryan M., Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: While revenues have been increasing for a small percentage of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) football bowl subdivision (FBS) programs, the majority (82%), have seen a larger increase in expenses due to an attempt to compete within the intercollegiate athletic arena, in what has been deemed an “arms race” (Edwards, 1984; Brown, Rascher, Nagel, & McEvoy, 2010; Tsitsos & Nixon, 2012). This arms race has led many universities to spend money to keep up with larger conferences...
Show moreWhile revenues have been increasing for a small percentage of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) football bowl subdivision (FBS) programs, the majority (82%), have seen a larger increase in expenses due to an attempt to compete within the intercollegiate athletic arena, in what has been deemed an “arms race” (Edwards, 1984; Brown, Rascher, Nagel, & McEvoy, 2010; Tsitsos & Nixon, 2012). This arms race has led many universities to spend money to keep up with larger conferences where budgets can exceed $100 million. Since 2004, "median total expenses have increased by over 120.6 percent" (Fulks, 2015, p. 12). After adjusting for inflation this percentage is even higher, showing an increase of 131.5% since 2004. Ticket sales and booster contributions have long been the mainstays of revenues for athletic departments (Fulks, 2015), with the continued increases in expenses there is a need to examine all avenues where potential revenues may exist. One potential revenue source can be found in the student body. Researchers have suggested community can be created by intercollegiate athletics, providing a “rallying point” (Clopton, 2007, p. 103). This community benefit could also be known as a psychic impact (income) which is the emotional impact from having the public good of intercollegiate athletics on a particular university campus. Psychic impact is a form of positive externality, which is a benefit, produced by the intercollegiate athletics programs in this case which cannot be captured by those in the athletic department or university who sell tickets and accept booster donations (Brown et al., 2010). A public good is a good that is non-rivalrous and non-excludable by nature, meaning that more consumption by one individual does not limit the availability of the good to be consumed by another and the consumer cannot be excluded from consuming the good (Taylor & Weerapana, 2010). Intercollegiate athletics exemplify this definition of public goods and since sports are a “socially-consumed commodity” (Sanderson, 1999, p. 189) there needs to be a way to measure the value of such an important commodity. Public goods are non-market goods. It can be difficult to place a value on their consumption since there is not a market price. According to Lipton, Wellman, Sheifer, and Weiher (1995) there are direct and indirect techniques to measure the value of a non-market good. The indirect approach relies on observations of behavior to determine the value of a product or service to a consumer, where the direct approach is to ask a consumer how much they are willing to pay (WTP) to consumer the desired product or service. Indirect measurement includes such techniques as the travel cost method, random utility models, and hedonic pricing techniques. The contingent valuation method (CVM) is the direct approach to measuring an individual’s WTP. The CVM is a survey based method which elicits a hypothetical scenario for consumers to place a monetary value on the overall WTP by extrapolating the results from the survey sample to the target population. While the CVM has been used in numerous studies within the sport management literature (Atkinson, Mourato, Szymanski, & Ozdemiroglu, 2008; Barros, 2002; Castellanos & Sanchez, 2007; Drayer & Shaprio, 2011; Fenn & Crooker, 2009; Groothuis, Johnson, & Whitehead, 2004; Harter, 2015; Johnson & Whitehead, 2000; Johnson, Whitehead, Mason, & Walker, 2007; Owen, 2006; Santo, 2007; Wicker, Hallmann, Breuer, & Feiler. 2012), researchers have not attempted to measure the public goods generated for an intercollegiate athletics department by examining the WTP of college students to pay increased athletic fees to support their institution’s athletics programs. This purpose of this dissertation was threefold: 1) First, to estimate the private consumption benefits current Florida State University (FSU) students derived from attending sporting events offered through the athletic department; 2) to estimate the public consumption benefits derived by current FSU students who do not attend sporting events; and 3) to estimate the total economic value (TEV) the student population of FSU assigns to the athletics department. An online questionnaire was modified from previous CVM literature to facilitate its use in a college athletics settings and with a sample of current college students. The survey underwent an examination by an expert panel and then a pilot test was conducted. Four research questions were examined and it was found that both respondents who did attend and those that did not attend FSU athletics sporting events did have a WTP to pay athletics fees, but their WTP did not match how much they currently pay in athletics fees. Additionally, it was found that those respondents who attend sporting events do have a higher WTP if they also consume the FSU Athletics Department through other means that are related to the public goods portion of the FSU Athletics Department. Finally, it was determined that the total WTP of the respondents is higher than the amount that students currently pay for athletics fees. Based on the evidence from the data analysis, it was found that: students do have a WTP to help support the FSU Athletics Department although it might not be to the amount that they currently pay in athletics fees; those who do not attend FSU sporting events do have an increase in their WTP the more they consume the public goods of the athletics department; and the total WTP is higher than the current amount the respondents pay in athletics fees.
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Date Issued: 2016
Identifier: FSU_2016SU_Howard_fsu_0071E_13177
Format: Thesis

Title: If We Build It, We Will Play: Collaborative Governance and the Development of Disc Golf in the United States.
Creator: Didonato, Mark, Newman, Joshua I., Coutts, Christopher, Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Giardina, Michael D., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: In this dissertation, I compare three case study-based analyses of collaborative governance arrangements between municipal government parks and recreation departments and civil-sector disc golf associations. I utilize theories of collaborative governance, an arrangement between two or more organizations sharing responsibility for decision making, problem solving, and/or the provision of a good or service (Ansell & Gash, 2007; Bradley, 2012), to examine the extent to which free-market economic...
Show moreIn this dissertation, I compare three case study-based analyses of collaborative governance arrangements between municipal government parks and recreation departments and civil-sector disc golf associations. I utilize theories of collaborative governance, an arrangement between two or more organizations sharing responsibility for decision making, problem solving, and/or the provision of a good or service (Ansell & Gash, 2007; Bradley, 2012), to examine the extent to which free-market economic approaches to public sector sport and recreation administration (and namely practices associated with the implementation of devolution) influence the structurations within which disc golf courses are developed, administered, and resourced (Ansell & Gash, 2007; Elwood and Leitner, 2003; Ghose, 2005; Roy, 2015). Although some scholars have examined the use of collaborative governance in sport and recreation (e.g. Brownlow, 2006; Joassart-Marcelli et al., 2011; Perkins, 2009; Perkins, 2010; Pincetl, 2003), there has been little research on sport specific models of collaborative governance at the municipal level and the perceptions of those involved in this model. I look specifically at how the restructuring of government agencies to partner with civil sector organizations for the provision of parks and recreation affect the quality and fluency of those services/facilities (Joassart-Marcelli, Wolch, & Salim, 2010; Holifield & Williams, 2014; Pincetl, 2003; Wolch, 1990). For this analysis, I conducted three inductive, qualitative case studies using interviews, observation, and document analysis of disc golf course development and administration in three differentially scaled cities. Overall, I examined participant perceptions of: 1) the management of disc golf space; 2) responsibilities of the organizations involved in collaborative governance; 3) benefits and challenges of the collaborative partnership; and 4) anticipated outcomes of disc golf related to economic development, social inclusion, and public health for policy. The results indicate a variety of collaborative governance models by public administrators and members of local disc golf associations who work together to plan and maintain courses, provide funding, and enhance the local disc golf scene.
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Date Issued: 2016
Identifier: FSU_2016SU_DiDonato_fsu_0071E_13411
Format: Thesis

Title: Sport and Happiness: A Multi-Level Analysis of Sport Consumer's Subjective Well-Being and Need Fulfillment.
Creator: Kim, Jeeyoon, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Ferris, Gerald R., Paek, Insu, Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: How do sport consumption activities (i.e., sport participation, sport spectating, and sport media viewing) affect the subjective well-being (or happiness) of sport consumers? To fulfill the ethical creed of sport marketers and to effectively utilize ‘well-being’ as a marketing strategy, it is imperative to know whether and how sport consumption influences one’s psychological state. Learning the existence and degree of sport consumption’s influence on happiness is essential in laying the...
Show moreHow do sport consumption activities (i.e., sport participation, sport spectating, and sport media viewing) affect the subjective well-being (or happiness) of sport consumers? To fulfill the ethical creed of sport marketers and to effectively utilize ‘well-being’ as a marketing strategy, it is imperative to know whether and how sport consumption influences one’s psychological state. Learning the existence and degree of sport consumption’s influence on happiness is essential in laying the fundamental basis of sport consumer well-being research. Research on the mechanism of achieving happiness through sport consumption can be informative for sport marketers in deriving strategies to enhance the consumer’s benefits. However, the fundamental questions about sport consumer’s subjective well-being are not yet fully answered, calling for further research particularly in the sport spectating and sport media consumption contexts. A research project was conducted based on the revised model of hedonic treadmill, activity theory, and need theory: (1) to investigate the influences of sport participation, sport spectating, and sport media viewing activities on one’s baseline and momentary fluctuation of subjective well-being, and (2) to examine ‘need fulfillment’ (i.e., fulfilling one’s needs for detachment-recovery, autonomy, achievement, and belonging) as the psychological process linking sport consumption activities to increased happiness. A repetitive self-report based research project was completed to examine subjective well-being state and need fulfillment experiences in the three sport consumption contexts, and the link between need fulfillment and subjective well-being. Two pilot studies were conducted to construct scales for measuring subjective well-being and need fulfillment and to pre-test the data collection plan of the main study. The main study was conducted to test the relations among sport consumption activities, subjective well-being and need fulfillment. Data was collected based on ecological momentary assessment—that is, repetitive data collection took place on a panel of respondents via mobile phones during their daily lives, 2-3 times per week, over 9 weeks to capture perceptions of subjective well-being state and need fulfillment experience in relation to the type of activity engaged at the time of signal. A total of 2,746 responses were collected from 242 respondents. Multi-level structural equation modeling was conducted for the data analysis, with responses at level-1 and respondents at level-2. Sport participation and sport spectating activities had positive influences on baseline and momentary fluctuation of subjective well-being, and was effective for detachment-recovery, autonomy, achievement, and belonging needs fulfillment. Both positive and negative influences of sport media viewing on subjective well-being state and baseline were found; detachment-recovery, autonomy, and belonging needs were fulfilled in the activity, while achievement need was not. Among the four types of fulfillment, autonomy and achievement needs fulfillment were identified as the most influential on subjective well-being state. Compared to non-sport activities (e.g., work, study, socializing, exercising), sport participation and sport spectating had positive, stronger and more comprehensive needs fulfillment and thus well-being effects; the effects of sport media viewing were positive (or less negative), stronger and more diverse than that of non-sport media viewing. Based on the findings, sport participation and sport spectating are identified as activities beneficial for contributing to short- and long-term well-being, while the valence of well-being effects in sport media viewing is ambiguous. The notion of short-term well-being effects being accumulated and developing into long-term well-being effects through repetitive exposure aligned with the findings in the study, but a more rigorous study examining the causal relations is required. Detachment-recovery, autonomy, achievement, and belonging needs fulfillment are highlighted as key constructs explaining the well-being effects associated with sport consumption. Particular attention on achievement need fulfillment is warranted, for being an influential construct on one’s subjective well-being state that may cause positive as well as negative well-being effects in the sport media viewing context. Examining the moderating effects of psychological connection between sport consumers and one’s favored sport team is proposed, for better understanding achievement need fulfillment through vicarious experiences of sport spectating and sport media viewing. Practical implications are presented for effective fulfillment of the four psychological needs through sport consumption activities, and thus for better improved well-being. Limitations of this study and directions for future research are suggested.
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Date Issued: 2016
Identifier: FSU_2016SU_Kim_fsu_0071E_13345
Format: Thesis

Title: Determinants of Volunteer Motives and Future Behavior in Community Sporting Events.
Creator: Lee, Myungwoo, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Newman, Joshua I., Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: The motives of volunteers provide an important key to understanding an individual's decision to become involved in volunteering (Kim, Zhang, & Connaughton, 2010). One challenge sporting event managers face is that community sport organizations in particular have suffered from a lack of volunteers (Cuskelly, 2004). To date, scholars have focused their research efforts to study the motivation and retention of volunteers for mega-sporting events. Previous researchers, however, suggested that...
Show moreThe motives of volunteers provide an important key to understanding an individual's decision to become involved in volunteering (Kim, Zhang, & Connaughton, 2010). One challenge sporting event managers face is that community sport organizations in particular have suffered from a lack of volunteers (Cuskelly, 2004). To date, scholars have focused their research efforts to study the motivation and retention of volunteers for mega-sporting events. Previous researchers, however, suggested that individuals volunteering with mega sporting events may demonstrate different motivations and behaviors compared to those volunteering in other settings such as community sport. Therefore, attention should be given to assess whether the motives of those volunteering to work at community sporting events differ from motives to volunteer at mega sporting events. In spite of the observed differences between community and mega sporting events, there has been little effort to compare volunteer motivations for the different types of sporting events. Kim et al. (2010) started their research based on the perspective that different motives may drive volunteers to work in different sport settings, an approach that is similar to the proposed research. Even though Kim et al. (2010) studied volunteers working with community sport events, (e.g., youth community sports), a majority of participants in their study were parents who had children participating in sport programs. While youth sports are considered a facet of community sports, the proposed research focused on volunteers at community sporting events that were primarily adult oriented other than youth sports oriented. The purpose of this study was to: (a) identify the motives that are most and least important to those who volunteer with community sporting events, and (b) assess whether the particular motives influence intention to continue volunteering in the future. The results from this study provide community sport organizers with information as to why people volunteer to work with community sporting events, and how to retain them. The results from this study may be used by administrators in community sport organizations to develop policies to aid recruitment and retention of volunteers. To achieve the goals of proposed study, participants who were currently involved in volunteering activities, or had volunteer experiences with community sporting events (e.g., community tennis tournaments, road races, and soccer leagues, etc.) were recruited. I collected data via both e-mail and face-to-face. To analyze the data, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using Mplus was used to assess the hypothesized relationships between volunteer motivation and intention to continue volunteering. I concluded from the results that Value was the most important motive for volunteering. The remaining factors, in order of importance for volunteering were Social, Career, Enhancement, and Protective. In terms of intention to continue volunteering in general, Protective and Career had significant and negative relationships, while Social and Enhancement had significant and positive influences on overall intention to continue volunteering. Protective had a significant and negative relationship on intention to continue volunteering relative to the influence by family or friends. Enhancement had a significant and positive influence on intention to continue volunteering relative to the influence by family or friends. Social and Career did not have a significant influence on intention to continue volunteering relative to the influence by family or friends.
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Date Issued: 2016
Identifier: FSU_2016SP_Lee_fsu_0071N_13272
Format: Thesis

Title: Sports Gambling's Prohibition and the Potential for Regulation.
Creator: Holden, John Timothy, Rodenberg, Ryan M., Proffitt, Jennifer M., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Giardina, Michael D., Florida State University, College of Education,...
Show moreHolden, John Timothy, Rodenberg, Ryan M., Proffitt, Jennifer M., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Giardina, Michael D., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: Daily fantasy sports games have recently emerged as one of the fastest growing segments associated with the sports industry. While traditional fantasy sports have long been associated with sport consumption, daily fantasy sports allow consumers to participate in games over a much shorter period of time than the traditional season long variety. Daily variety fantasy sports that operate over short time periods may appear to have more in common with traditional forms of sports gambling than...
Show moreDaily fantasy sports games have recently emerged as one of the fastest growing segments associated with the sports industry. While traditional fantasy sports have long been associated with sport consumption, daily fantasy sports allow consumers to participate in games over a much shorter period of time than the traditional season long variety. Daily variety fantasy sports that operate over short time periods may appear to have more in common with traditional forms of sports gambling than traditional season long fantasy sports. This dissertation is motivated by the differentiation of daily fantasy sports from sports gambling that has allowed the latter to economically flourish while the former remains confined to largely illegal markets in the United States. While the ability for consumers to gamble in the United States is regulated, many forms of legalized gambling exist. Sports gambling is, by contrast, heavily controlled. The federal laws restricting sports gambling to several states have been in existence for more than 50 years. While sports gambling is strongly opposed by most of the major U.S. sports leagues, several of these leagues have partnered with daily fantasy companies on the basis that the games present an additional way for fans to engage with the underlying sporting events. The sports leagues’ partnerships with daily fantasy providers are intriguing because of the leagues’ historical opposition to legalized gambling. The archival and doctrinal legal research conducted for completion of this dissertation was undertaken to answer three questions. The first research question contains an examination of the role that the major U.S. sports leagues have had in testifying before Congress and advocating in support of the continued prohibition for sports gambling. The second research question guides an investigation into whether attributes associated with fantasy sports and daily fantasy sports were distinguished from the reasons cited for the opposition to legalizing sports gambling. The third research question addresses the issue of whether certain daily fantasy games may be offering prohibited financial products. The research associated with this project contributes in a meaningful way to the present understanding of the interaction between daily fantasy sports and sports gambling. Additionally, the proposed framework may serve as an early step in the process of evaluating the benefits of regulating DFS and sports gambling in a manner that is common and familiar to the American public.
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Date Issued: 2016
Identifier: FSU_2016SU_Holden_fsu_0071E_13313
Format: Thesis

Title: Consumer Perceptions of a Sponsor’s Corporate Social Responsibility Activities.
Creator: Mamo, Yoseph, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Newman, Joshua I., Rodenberg, Ryan M., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: ABSTRACT Sponsorship of sport properties accounts for approximately two-thirds of all sponsorship expenditures ("IEG Sponsorship Report," 2014). The global sponsorship sector increased from $48 billion dollars to $51 billion from 2011 to 2012 ("IEG Sponsorship Report," 2014). Organizations have increasingly shifted to sponsorship as a marketing communications vehicle in the hopes that the goodwill that consumers feel toward the cause will transfer to their image (Madrigal, 2001). With the...
Show moreABSTRACT Sponsorship of sport properties accounts for approximately two-thirds of all sponsorship expenditures ("IEG Sponsorship Report," 2014). The global sponsorship sector increased from $48 billion dollars to $51 billion from 2011 to 2012 ("IEG Sponsorship Report," 2014). Organizations have increasingly shifted to sponsorship as a marketing communications vehicle in the hopes that the goodwill that consumers feel toward the cause will transfer to their image (Madrigal, 2001). With the same token, many researchers suggest there is a link between social initiatives and an organization's improved financial performance (e.g., Davis, 1960; Arlow and Gannon. 1982; Ullmann, 1985; McGuire et al., 1988; Waddock and Graves, 1997; Margolis et al., 2003). The main purpose of the proposed research is to better understand stakeholder perceptions of sponsors, specifically perceptions about the sponsors' CSR activities, and the potential impact of such perceptions on sponsors' image. The current study was quantitative in nature; using a quasi-experimental pre- and post –test control group design. The questionnaire was completed by FSU Sport Management students in three different sessions. The instruments for study were paper based questionnaires, which participants filled out between viewing two short video clips. Three different groups were participate in the study at three different times; each group received a different scenario pertaining to the sponsor's information and CSR activities; this study consisted of two experimental groups and one control group. All the groups followed the same procedure except the manipulation of the independent variable. Those in Group 2 read about the company's sponsorship activity, and those in Group 1 read information about the sponsorship activity and the company's CSR activity, and those in Group 3 read about the company's information. The measures in this study were adapted from existing literatures. The participants were 98 students. A descriptive analysis was conducted to assess the frequency of age (based on date of birth), gender, race and year in school. I analyzed the data to assess evidence of reliability pertaining to the constructs of interest: attitude toward the sponsor, sponsor's image, and attitude toward the sport property. Univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test, and the result revealed that there were no significant differences between groups at the pre-test stage for all the dependent variables. While in the post-test there was a significant difference between groups were found regarding on attitude toward the sponsor and sponsor's image where p [less than] .05. Regarding attitude toward the sport property there was no significance difference both at the pre-test and post-test stages. Overall, group 1 (CSR and sponsorship) had a higher mean score of all dependent variables than group 2 (sponsorship) and group 3 (company information). Group 2 (sponsorship) had a higher mean score of all dependent variables than group 3 (company information).
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_2015fall_Mamo_fsu_0071N_12791
Format: Thesis

Title: What Is the "Team" in Team Identification?.
Creator: Delia, Elizabeth Burke, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Ferris, Gerald R., Giardina, Michael D., Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education,...
Show moreDelia, Elizabeth Burke, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Ferris, Gerald R., Giardina, Michael D., Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: For decades, sport consumer behavior scholars have been interested in understanding individuals' psychological connection to sport teams. Through their efforts--including the development of concepts such as team identification--scholars have provided a foundation for subsequent research into various consumer thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors in relation to identification with or attachment to a team. However, scholars have not studied how sport consumers construct the team in regard to their...
Show moreFor decades, sport consumer behavior scholars have been interested in understanding individuals' psychological connection to sport teams. Through their efforts--including the development of concepts such as team identification--scholars have provided a foundation for subsequent research into various consumer thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors in relation to identification with or attachment to a team. However, scholars have not studied how sport consumers construct the team in regard to their psychological connection to it. Moreover, sport consumer behavior scholars have not addressed the potential fluidity and/or partiality of the sense of self one derives from supporting a team. These scholars have also often overlooked the contextual circumstances in which sport-related identities are negotiated and maintained. Collectively, the preceding shortcomings are what led me to the research I conducted in this dissertation. Given the complexity of the research aims, I conducted qualitative research with sport consumers, utilizing Syracuse University Men's Basketball as a case to study. I utilized phenomenological interviews and concept mapping to understand the meaning of team in the mind of consumers and how individuals derive a sense of self from such an entity. In conducting the research, I remained cognizant of the situational aspects of the research environment, acknowledging the temporal sensitivity of the research act. In pursuing of Research Aim 1 (i.e., to understand the meaning of "team" in team identification), I discovered that the individuals interviewed consider the coach, current and former players, fans, facility, geographic location, rivalry, and a history of success part of the "team" they identify with. I also found that the meaning of "team" varies based on its use in regard to psychological connection (i.e., identification) versus performance. Finally, I discovered that the meaning of "team" is continually changing and thus, relatively unfixed. Considering Research Aim 2 (i.e., to understand the stability and sources of identity associated with supporting the team), I discovered that the group identity of Syracuse University Men's Basketball is constructed in both a social and cultural sense, and largely influenced by history. Essentially, the sense of self individuals derive from supporting Syracuse University Men's Basketball is continually changing based on the life-world of the individuals and changes in the program; this allowed me to highlight the importance of context in studying fan identity. In addition, I discussed the enmeshed nature of group identity regarding Syracuse University Men's Basketball and Central New York. In pursuing Research Aim 3 (i.e., to understand how construction of "team" influences micro and macro consumer behavior), I found that fans, facility/location, rivalry, and history/success are all influential in thoughts and behaviors toward Syracuse University Men's Basketball, as well as the social well-being of fans. Collectively, the research I have conducted in this project allows me to contribute to the sport consumer behavior by illustrating the complex meaning of team in regard to individuals' psychological connection to sport teams. This research should be of interest to scholars and practitioners in regard to branding, targeted marketing, and consumer well-being. Future research into this area should allow scholars and practitioners to understand how the meaning of team and team-related group identities may change over time and in varied sport environments, and the influence of such on behaviors.
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9590
Format: Thesis

Title: The Effect of Personality Traits on Spectator Ratings of Service Quality and Satisfaction.
Creator: Yu, Hoyeol, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: Spectator sports are one of the largest industries in the United States (Byon, Zhang & Baker, 2013). In this regard, sports marketers and organizations have focused on maintaining or attracting spectators utilizing various promotion methods. However, according to a Sport Business Research Network (SBRnet, 2012) report, the trend of attendance at Division I college football games has declined since 2010. Specifically, the NCAA member schools reported that the average attendance of Division I...
Show moreSpectator sports are one of the largest industries in the United States (Byon, Zhang & Baker, 2013). In this regard, sports marketers and organizations have focused on maintaining or attracting spectators utilizing various promotion methods. However, according to a Sport Business Research Network (SBRnet, 2012) report, the trend of attendance at Division I college football games has declined since 2010. Specifically, the NCAA member schools reported that the average attendance of Division I-FBS decreased from 45, 912 to 44,970 from 2010 to 2012. Due to the fact that attendance at college football games has seen some decline, it has become more important for sports marketers and organizations to better understand factors affecting consumers in order to attract consumers (Byon, Zhang & Baker, 2013). Researchers have studied various factors affecting why spectators attend a sporting event (Chen & Rylander, 2008). Yoshida and James (2010) mention that customer satisfaction is one way to assess spectator's intention of revisiting. To predict customer's satisfaction and behavioral intention of revisiting, researchers have examined service quality variables and core product quality variables and found that overall service quality has had a significant influence on both satisfaction and consumers' behavior intentions (Yoshida & James, 2010; Wakefield & Blodgett, 1996). Therefore, it is important for sports organizations and sports marketers to provide good service quality to positively impact spectator satisfaction. In addition, scholars have found that spectator satisfaction may vary based on personality traits (Anand, 1977; Barrick & Mount, 1991). John (2003) found that the satisfaction of perceived service quality varied by customer personality traits. John (2003) also suggested that it will be useful to examine what types of personality traits affect perceptions of service quality. In a sport context, Donavan, Carlson and Zimmerman (2005) stated that "individual differences may exist that stem from personality differences" (p. 31). In this sense, they argue that assessment of individual personality traits can be utilized by sports teams and sports managers to influence attendance (Donavan, Carlson & Zimmerman, 2005). Building from the information about individual differences, the proposed study will include a measure of spectators' personality traits to determine if there are differences in ratings of satisfaction with service quality. The main purpose of this study is to examine spectators' personality traits, and customer satisfaction with dimensions of service quality and core product quality. The current study was quantitative; paper and pencil questionnaires were used. The instruments in this study were adapted from existing studies. Four hundred questionnaires were distributed to spectators who attended football games at Florida State University. A descriptive analysis was conducted to assess the frequency of age (based on date of birth), gender, race and year in school. I analyzed the data to assess evidence of reliability pertaining to the constructs of interest: service quality, core product quality, and satisfaction. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to test, and subsequently found, that there were significant differences in ratings of satisfaction, service quality, and core product quality based on the four personality traits. Overall, spectators with Influence and Steadiness as a primary personality traits had a higher mean score of service quality, core product quality, and satisfaction, while spectators characterized by Dominance and Conscientiousness had a lower mean score.
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9501
Format: Thesis

Title: The Effect of Athletic Department Practices and Policies on Student-Athletes' Social Well-Being.
Creator: Wills, Spencer F., Newman, Joshua I., Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Rodenberg, Ryan M., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: This study provides an exploratory study of student-athletes and their self-reported social well-being. Specifically, this study measures the satisfaction and social well-being of student-athletes when it comes to athletic department practices and policies. Data was gathered from the distribution of a survey to student-athletes at a major Division-I FBS NCAA institution in the Southeastern United States. Statistical analysis between a student-athlete's satisfaction with their athletic...
Show moreThis study provides an exploratory study of student-athletes and their self-reported social well-being. Specifically, this study measures the satisfaction and social well-being of student-athletes when it comes to athletic department practices and policies. Data was gathered from the distribution of a survey to student-athletes at a major Division-I FBS NCAA institution in the Southeastern United States. Statistical analysis between a student-athlete's satisfaction with their athletic department's implemented practices and policies and their social well-being are considered. The concepts of well-being and social well-being are addressed as they related to student-athletes and constructs taken from previous studies will be used to analyze the student-athletes in this context. Theoretical implications and direction for future research are discussed.
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9489
Format: Thesis

Title: Examining the Separate Propositions Linking a Change in Sport Team Logo to Consumption.
Creator: McPhatter, Marlon R. (Marlon Rafael), James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Turner, Jeannine E. (Jeannine Ellen), Newman, Joshua I., Ferris, Gerald R., Florida State University,...
Show moreMcPhatter, Marlon R. (Marlon Rafael), James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Turner, Jeannine E. (Jeannine Ellen), Newman, Joshua I., Ferris, Gerald R., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: Fans often derive great personal value from having a connection with a particular sports team, joining with other fans in that connection, and being able to share connections readily with outsiders. Whether the connection is spatial/geographic, digital, or social, displaying a team logo can communicate many qualities about the wearer of team apparel. With most cases in sport, a team logo symbolizes the exclusive image or identity of the sport organization. A team logo as a symbol is a form of...
Show moreFans often derive great personal value from having a connection with a particular sports team, joining with other fans in that connection, and being able to share connections readily with outsiders. Whether the connection is spatial/geographic, digital, or social, displaying a team logo can communicate many qualities about the wearer of team apparel. With most cases in sport, a team logo symbolizes the exclusive image or identity of the sport organization. A team logo as a symbol is a form of semiotics. For the consumer, an image is a visual global evaluation that depicts or triggers a response based on experiences or other perceptions of meaning (Keller, 2003). Semiotics in advertising is frequently used to signify the message of the advertiser through the use of signs or symbols to relay a basic message. At a higher level of intensity and recognition, the team logo can be understood as a signifier of the exact representation of the good or service based on characteristics in the logo perceived by consumers as genuine and authentic to the overall brand. A logo can be defined as a graphic mark or emblem commonly used by commercial enterprises, organizations, and individuals to promote public recognition. Logos are either purely graphic (i.e. symbols/icons) or are composed of the name of the organization (i.e. a logotype or wordmark) (Wheeler, 2006). If a sport organization decided to change their organizational identity (for a variety of reasons), some may see this as diluting the distinctiveness of the overall brand. Components of the overall brand are created by the team through continuous operations in all aspects of the industry. Organizational identity is just a part of the overall brand and communicates the way in which a team wants consumers to perceive (not necessarily how it is actually perceived) the mission, values, and strategy of the team. Fans may collectively experience a change in organizational identity as a loss because it would undercut the ability for them to identify with the team. The organization may want to change or modify their identity within the industry but loyal fans, in this case, would have a collective interest in maintaining the distinctiveness of the team identity because of a strong connection with the team. Would established fans reject the efforts of the organization to modify or change their identity while the organization attempts to attract the interest of new fans? This study includes an analysis of sport team identity following a logo change and an assessment of how the characteristics of a logo are perceived by sport fans as they engage in the purchasing process. Fan perceptions about the representation of a team logo are explored through semi-structured interviews and an analysis of the attributes, values, and ideals teams want to portray through a team logo is provided. During the process of purchasing sport merchandise, the individual perceives themselves as a legitimate part of the team based on a desire to associate with positive elements of the organization (Janssen & Huang, 2008). Through the purchasing decision, fans can view the team as an entity with greater personal meaning and establish an allegiance gained from the team – fan relationship. The interviews were used to examine the impact of a logo change on fan perceptions and intentions to consume licensed team merchandise. One-on-one interviews were used to gather data from sport fans. The purpose of the interviews was to help understand how logos are perceived by fans, or what the logos are perceived to represent. The interviews included questions pertaining to how sport fans feel about changes in the team logo, and the impact of the logo change on intentions to consume. Understanding what the logo should mean and how that message can be properly communicated to fans is important when examining fan preferences towards the action of consumption.
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9400
Format: Thesis

Title: The Influence of Sport Specific Social Organizations on the Development of Identity: A Case Study of a Professional Golf Management Program.
Creator: Armstrong, Cole G., Giardina, Michael D., Ericsson, K. Anders (Karl Anders), Newman, Joshua I., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Florida State University, College of...
Show moreArmstrong, Cole G., Giardina, Michael D., Ericsson, K. Anders (Karl Anders), Newman, Joshua I., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: In 1951, the Professional Golfer's Association (PGA) code of ethics included a passage describing the necessity for a professional golfer to uphold the sport of golf above material gains in order to serve the game, fellow golfers, the industry of golf. Coupling five years golf experience with industry knowledge and respect for fellow professionals and golfers formed the foundation for the PGA professional. Clearly, the PGA, for many years, has held a position that the professional golfer must...
Show moreIn 1951, the Professional Golfer's Association (PGA) code of ethics included a passage describing the necessity for a professional golfer to uphold the sport of golf above material gains in order to serve the game, fellow golfers, the industry of golf. Coupling five years golf experience with industry knowledge and respect for fellow professionals and golfers formed the foundation for the PGA professional. Clearly, the PGA, for many years, has held a position that the professional golfer must develop a specific identity that enables him or her to uphold the role of golf professional in the eyes of the PGA and in the eyes of the golf consuming public. Beginning in 1975 at Ferris State University, the PGA, and the university, formed a partnership and curriculum to develop future PGA professionals known as the Professional Golf Management University Program. Building from the success of the Ferris State Program, the PGA expanded the PGM University program to an additional 19 institutions within the United States. Since its inception, the PGM University Program has produced hundreds of graduates and boasts a 100% job placement rate (PGA Education, 2013). Through the use of qualitative research methods (i.e., ethnography, participant observation, autoethnography, and interviews), I investigated the impact that a PGM University program has on the identity development of its students. Guided by theories of identity (Brown, 2000; Burke & Stets, 2009; Hogg & Terry, 2000; Hogg et al., 1995; Tajfel, 1974; Tajfel & Turner, 1979), the social theory of Pierre Bourdieu (1978, 1984, 1988) Ericsson and colleagues' theory of deliberate practice (1993), and theory pertaining to self-presentation (Leary, 1996), I provide a conceptual model of golf professional identity formation that is cognizant of personal histories, economic realities, and the influence of deliberate sport practice. Resulting from eighteen months of participant observation and interviews with ten students, I found that the PGM program had a distinct impact on both the role and social identities of the students, and that they formed a PGM influenced social identity prior to a PGM influenced role identity. I also found that deliberate practice was important for the group and was utilized to attain the skill level necessary to pass the Playing Ability Test (PAT); however, the use of deliberate practice tapered off after the completion of the (PAT). Emanating from the results of the project, I offer theoretical and practical implications for the study of identity, and deliberate practice. I conclude by offering future research directions and by offering an informed critique of the focal PGM program.
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9540
Format: Thesis

Title: Managing Digital Olympism: The International Olympic Committee's Strategic Management of Olympic Broadcasting Partnerships in the Digital Age.
Creator: Hills, Stephen James, Sampson, James P., Raney, Arthur A., Newman, Joshua I., Giardina, Michael D., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: This dissertation examined the strategic management of Olympic broadcasting partnerships. In particular, the analyses were centered on the processes and practices by which the International Olympic Committee (IOC) managed Olympism through Olympic broadcasting partnerships in the digital age. Previous research has addressed the tension between the ideals and practical realization of Olympism, from which competing interpretations of Olympism as a philosophy of social reform and as a commercial...
Show moreThis dissertation examined the strategic management of Olympic broadcasting partnerships. In particular, the analyses were centered on the processes and practices by which the International Olympic Committee (IOC) managed Olympism through Olympic broadcasting partnerships in the digital age. Previous research has addressed the tension between the ideals and practical realization of Olympism, from which competing interpretations of Olympism as a philosophy of social reform and as a commercial brand have been proposed. An examination of the IOC's leveraging of the Olympic values within the commercial area of sponsorships has concluded that the IOC used Olympism as a commercial brand rather than a philosophy of social reform. This study further examined the tension between the ideals and practical realization of Olympism, but within the commercial area of broadcasting. A gradual shift in Olympic broadcasting has occurred with the emergence of digital media platforms, culminating in London 2012 being regarded as the first truly digital Games. This change in the 'mediascape' of sport, whereby control of content is now shared by broadcasters and consumers, has required the IOC to adjust its strategic management of their Olympic broadcasting partnerships. Accordingly, the research questions addressed in the dissertation were: (1) What are the processes and practices by which the IOC manages Olympism through its broadcasting partnerships in the digital age; (2) how does the IOC manage these processes and practices; and (3) why does the IOC manage these processes and practices in this way? To answer the research questions, a qualitative approach, based upon constructivist assumptions, was taken. A case study design was adopted, focusing on the organization of the IOC, but also considering the important role of broadcast partners in Olympic broadcasting. Data were collected from: (a) IOC documents; (b) personal written accounts from former IOC executives; (c) semi-structured interviews with a key IOC broadcasting executive, the British Broadcasting Corporation's Head of Major Events, and the IOC's former Director of Marketing and Broadcast Rights; and (d) reviews of the BBC's Sochi 2014 broadcast and the IOC's use of digital media platforms outside of Games time. These data were analyzed using a content analysis technique. The findings established that the IOC leveraged digital media platforms to execute several of its key strategies in its management of Olympic broadcasting partnerships: (a) Seeking to sustain Olympism by re-engaging the World's youth; (b) operating an access for all policy based upon achieving the widest possible reach and ensuring equitable access to the Olympic Games; (c) expanding the Olympic window (e.g., increased coverage) to enhance the Olympic broadcast; (d) seeking to transcend sport using the unique attributes of the Olympic Games; and (e) accommodating the commercial interests of their broadcast partners. The most effective strategies were those in the mutual interest of both the IOC and their broadcast partners. According to the narrative of the IOC, their raison d'être is to serve society, and their strategic management of Olympic broadcasting partnerships seeks to maximize the inspirational effects of the Olympic Games. However, a more credible claim is that the IOC's strategic management is commercially driven. Recognizing the necessity of commercial engagement for the sustainability of the Olympic Games, it is recommended that the IOC should strike a more practical balance between their social and commercial agendas. Notably, upholding of the Olympic values would bring greater credibility to the IOC's promotion and commercial leveraging of these ideals.
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9352
Format: Thesis

Title: The Impact of On- and Off-Field Sports Scandals on Team Identification and Consumer Behavior Intentions.
Creator: Hamilton, Jennifer Michael, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Guerette, Amy R., Newman, Joshua I., Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Florida State University, College of Education,...
Show moreHamilton, Jennifer Michael, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Guerette, Amy R., Newman, Joshua I., Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: A review of sport media on any given day seemingly includes news about an athlete involved in some type of questionable behavior, or what is likely referred to as a "scandal." For example, consider the numerous stories published about Lance Armstrong's denial then subsequent admission of using performance-enhancing drugs, or the stories about Tiger Wood's marital infidelity. Despite what seems to be daily reports in the media about scandals involving athletes, empirical assessment of the...
Show moreA review of sport media on any given day seemingly includes news about an athlete involved in some type of questionable behavior, or what is likely referred to as a "scandal." For example, consider the numerous stories published about Lance Armstrong's denial then subsequent admission of using performance-enhancing drugs, or the stories about Tiger Wood's marital infidelity. Despite what seems to be daily reports in the media about scandals involving athletes, empirical assessment of the impact of knowing about such scandals on sport consumers' remains limited (Prior, O'Reilly, Mazanov, & Huybers, 2013). With the viability and prosperity of commercially-oriented sport teams dependent on consumption by sport fans and spectators, it is important to ascertain the impact scandals involving athletes have on consumer behavior. There is anecdotal evidence that sport scandals have a negative impact on sport consumer behavior. There remains limited empirical research, however, examining the direct impact of sports scandals on sport team-related consumption patterns of consumers. This project was an attempt to investigate the impact of reported sports scandals on team identification and sport consumers' sport team-related behavior intentions. Two objectives guided the research. First, ascertain whether on-field and off-field sports scandals have an impact on sport consumers' team identification and sport team-related behavioral intentions. Second, assess whether a sport consumers' level of team identification moderates the impact of on-field and off-field sports scandals on subsequent sport team-related behavioral intentions. A pretest-posttest quasi-experimental research design was used to collect quantitative measures of team identification and sport team-related behavioral intentions prior (pretest) and subsequent (posttest) to on-field or off-field sport scandal condition exposure. The results of the investigation are contradictory to anecdotal evidence. It was concluded from the results that irrespective of the type of sports scandal, sport consumers' team identification levels and sport team-related behavioral intentions remained static subsequent to learning of a scandal. There was no negative spillover effect on the associated sport team.
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_2016SP_Hamilton_fsu_0071E_13026
Format: Thesis

Title: Positive Organizational Behavior in Sport: The Left and Right of Psychological Capital in Sport Organizations.
Creator: Kim, Min Jung, Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Ferris, Gerald R., Newman, Joshua I., Perrewé, Pamela L., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: Using the lens of positive thinking is an essential key to improving one's psychological well-being, especially in the modern workplace. In today's "flat-world" and fast-paced environment, modern organizations are well-fitted with the perspective of positive organizational behavior (POB) because POB assumes state-like capacities highlighting flexibility for different situations. The sport industry, one of the most competitive workplace arenas (Plunkett, 2008), creates a particularly...
Show moreUsing the lens of positive thinking is an essential key to improving one's psychological well-being, especially in the modern workplace. In today's "flat-world" and fast-paced environment, modern organizations are well-fitted with the perspective of positive organizational behavior (POB) because POB assumes state-like capacities highlighting flexibility for different situations. The sport industry, one of the most competitive workplace arenas (Plunkett, 2008), creates a particularly exceptional environment in which POB needs to be adapted for an improved employee's work experience and well-being. In transferring the idea of POB to the practice of human resource management, Luthans and Youssef (2004) proposed the concept of psychological capital or simply PsyCap. PsyCap is a high-order construct of self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resiliency, and is considered as state-like, potentially having a synergistic impact on individual and organizational outcomes. Given the importance of POB and PsyCap in sport organizations, the three-fold purpose of this study is to: (1) provide a conceptual framework of POB in sport (POBS), (2) empirically examine the effects of various influences on PsyCap, and (3) investigate the role of PsyCap in increasing employees' PWB. Top management teams of an organization will expect their employees to be efficacious, hopeful, optimistic and resilient, but only a few studies have offered a systematic consideration for antecedents of PsyCap (Avey, 2014). Employees' PsyCap levels are determined by leaders' behavior, organizational culture, and individual perspectives and attitudes. Therefore, the conceptual framework of POB in sport (POBS) considers leader, employees, and organizational influences for PsyCap. The ultimate goal of POB is the pursuit of employees' happiness and well-being beyond higher levels of organizational performance. Thus, POBS emphasizes the inclusion of employees' PWB to general organizational outcomes. By proposing a testable research model, 11 research hypotheses were addressed, including both direct and indirect effects. This reduced model consisted of six main constructs, including authentic leadership, meaningful work, supportive organizational climate, PsyCap, job satisfaction and PWB. To create reliable and valid scales to test the research hypotheses, an initial set of items was developed in a pilot test by collecting data from employees in athletic departments of Division II and III institutions. The three-fold purpose of the main study is to (1) provide further evidence of construct validity of constructs in the research model, (2) test research hypotheses in regard to causal relationships among five constructs, and (3) examine the mediating role of PsyCap between three predictors (i.e., authentic leadership, meaningful work, supportive organizational climate) and PWB. To achieve each aforementioned purpose, the main study targeted employees in athletic departments of Division I institutions and included three stages of data analysis, respectively: (1) evaluation of full measurement model through a CFA, (2) empirical test of research hypotheses through SEM, and (3) examination of indirect effects of PsyCap. The results from the empirical tests of the hypothesized model indicated that employees' meaningful work and supportive organizational climate positively influence PsyCap level, leading to higher levels of job satisfaction and PWB. On the other hand, the path from authentic leadership of athletic directors in athletic departments, to employees' PsyCap was not statistically significant with the sample from the current study. Based on the results of the direct effects, indirect effects regarding PsyCap as a central value were also tested. PsyCap played important roles between antecedents (i.e., left) and outcomes (i.e., right) as either a partial mediator or a full mediator. The current study provides empirical evidence regarding not only antecedents and outcomes of PsyCap but also mediating role of PsyCap in the context of sport. For practitioners in the sport industry, the current study offers a new perspective of positivity in workplace by conceptualizing a POBS as a roadmap.
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9629
Format: Thesis

Title: The Effect of the National Basketball Association Schedule on Team Productivity.
Creator: Sung, Yoon Tae, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Rodenberg, Ryan M., Kim, Daekwan, Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport...
Show moreSung, Yoon Tae, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Rodenberg, Ryan M., Kim, Daekwan, Newman, Joshua I., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: Given that sports teams follow the schedules provided by their respective league offices, there has been much debate in terms of a potential impact of differential rest intervals on a team's productivity. In general, workers of an organization need rest in order to optimally perform. Rest can also reduce workers' fatigue and stress, which can have a positive impact on worker performance and ultimately be a benefit to an organization. The same notion of rest is applicable to professional sport...
Show moreGiven that sports teams follow the schedules provided by their respective league offices, there has been much debate in terms of a potential impact of differential rest intervals on a team's productivity. In general, workers of an organization need rest in order to optimally perform. Rest can also reduce workers' fatigue and stress, which can have a positive impact on worker performance and ultimately be a benefit to an organization. The same notion of rest is applicable to professional sport teams, as their abilities and performance are key to team productivity. Because a team's schedule is controlled by a sport league or association that organizes sporting events, it is common for team managers and coaches to complain about insufficient rest periods for their teams. Teams in the National Basketball Association (NBA) follow an unbalanced game schedule in terms of rest days and the length of a home stand/road trip. The league does not prioritize each team's rest days when scheduling games. As a result, teams frequently play back-to-back games with little or no rest days, and when traveling play multiple games in a row during a regular season. A potential problem with an unbalanced league schedule is that zero or a small number of rest days increase players' fatigue, which could subsequently impair overall team productivity. It was unclear to what degree differential rest intervals impact team productivity in the NBA. This issue is important, because team productivity is associated with the competitiveness within the league, which can influence team revenue derived from attendance, television rights deals, and other sources. Based on this notion, I examined whether differential rest intervals and the length of a home stand/road trip impacted team productivity in the NBA. I tested three statistical models with three dependent variables, in order to approach team productivity from diverse perspectives. The three dependent variables were team performance measures, win/loss, and margin of victory. To operationalize the concept of rest in the NBA, I employed rest periods of each team. Two other measures of the concept of rest were also chosen: the length of a road trip and a home stand. As indirect measures of the concept of rest intervals, these two factors are also important assuming that a long stay at home (on the road) may advantage (disadvantage) teams, because travel is believed to increases players' fatigue. The NBA prioritizes a venue's availability when scheduling games, so some teams stay at home for multiple games whereas other teams have to travel to play multiple games on the road. Thus, I attempted to gain insight as to how team productivity may have changed depending on a team's rest interval, length of a road trip, and length of a home stand scheduled by the NBA. Rest intervals were only significant in relation to two performance metrics, field-goal percentage and steals, while a team's margin of victory and probability of winning did not change with rest days. The non-significant impact of rest intervals on a team's productivity in relation to its game outcomes demonstrate that rest intervals were not a key determinant of game outcomes in the NBA. The improvement in field-goal percentage and steals was too low to change game outcomes. In addition, the impact of the length of a home stand and a road trip on team productivity were negligible, regardless of their statistical significance. These results indicate that the NBA's priority for building a schedule—venue availability—has not been flawed in that no team was advantaged or disadvantaged by playing successive games at home or on the road. The empirical results of the current study are supportive of NBA teams' and players' efforts to reduce the negative impact of no or short rest days on team productivity. I also found that travel factors such as the length of a home stand and a road trip (elements thought to impact a home advantage) were not greatly influential to a team's wins. Based on the results of the current study, I provide directions for future research with diverse approaches to the concepts of rest, fatigue, and productivity in sports.
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Date Issued: 2015
Identifier: FSU_2015fall_Sung_fsu_0071E_12743
Format: Thesis

Title: Water for Sport: The (Re)Production of Global Crisis.
Creator: Bunds, Kyle S., Giardina, Michael D., Proffitt, Jennifer M., Newman, Joshua I., James, Jeffrey D., Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: Water is a natural resource with which the Global North is familiar with, but unfamiliar - conscious of its importance, but unconscious of its complexity. People with access to clean water know that they receive water in their hands or glass when they turn on the faucet, but how it reaches that point is really unimportant over the course of their day. Yet, the battle for access to and control of water has been burgeoning for centuries: the Nile River Wars have raged on for centuries and...
Show moreWater is a natural resource with which the Global North is familiar with, but unfamiliar - conscious of its importance, but unconscious of its complexity. People with access to clean water know that they receive water in their hands or glass when they turn on the faucet, but how it reaches that point is really unimportant over the course of their day. Yet, the battle for access to and control of water has been burgeoning for centuries: the Nile River Wars have raged on for centuries and continue today (Waterbury, 1979); access to clean drinking water was determined by social class in the middle ages resulting in impressive aqueduct systems and social division (Magnusson, 2001); cholera spread throughout India during the colonization period as the caste system was introduced and clean water was a privilege strictly for the colonizers and elite (Arnold, 1986); conservation of water through times of drought plagued the Southwestern United States through the early to middle twentieth centuries leading to large dam projects and governmental subsidies for farmers (Glennon, 2009); and, water is currently a resource interwoven within a larger discussion involving environmental marketization (Bakker, 2007). There has been a plethora of solutions proposed, greed exposed, and bodies decomposed, but the problem exists as much now as ever. The era we enter into now is one of new media and technology that helps to expose individuals to the human body in need. This media exposure has led to the widespread adoption of the phrase "water crisis" and has involved a growth in the number of non-profits involved with water problems. First entering the public lexicon in 1991, "'crisis' over environmental issues have been presented by well-intentioned activists and organisations promoting the changes needed to bring about sustainable development" (Newson, 2009, p. 17). This crisis can be in large part accredited to failed government initiatives and privatization efforts that continue to create problems (Bakker, 2010). The non-profit era born from a turn in economic policies away from social welfare programming (King, 2000; Specht & Courtney, 1994; Trattner, 1999), has seemingly come to the rescue of the failures between the state and the private entity. This turn toward an era dominated by non-profits and a discourse of the good, philanthropic American citizen has witnessed the rise of the social marketing conglomerate. These social marketing groups are comprised of non-profit organizations, multinational corporations, local communities, and governments all working towards behavioral changes (Kotler & Lee, 2009) on the part of the Global North consumer of their message or the Global South receiver of their aid. One avenue the social marketing groups have chosen to utilize is sport. It is on this idea of sport and the human body as a site for the development and reproduction of historical struggles for life, power, and control that this project focuses. To this end, I followed the water as it flows quite literally as a resource, to a commodity, to money, to commodity, and back again through multi-method qualitative inquiry. This interpretive ethnography (Denzin, 1997) consisted of three qualitative methods of inquiry. The first is a descriptive content analysis of the discourse of water and the implementation of programs providing clean drinking water to those in the Global South. The second type of analysis is semi-structured and reflexive interviews (Denzin, 2001) with participants in events raising money for water and members of social marketing groups. The final part of the analysis is a critical ethnography of water charities in the Global North. Through this method, I understood who gets to speak for whom and what type of bodies matter in the search for the answer to the world's water crisis.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-8743
Format: Thesis

Title: Assessing Sport Brand Equity Through Use of the Contingent Valuation Method.
Creator: Lee, Jiesun Lucy, James, Jeffrey D., Schwartz, Robert A., Kim, Yu Kyoum, Wells, Janelle E., Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: The concept of brand equity has been widely recognized as both an academic construct and an important business consideration (Aaker, 1991; 1996; Farquhar, 1989; Kamakura & Russell, 1993; Keller, 1993; Gladden et al., 1998; Ross, 2006). The concept has been defined as the added value associated with a particular product that is accrued by a brand beyond the utilitarian or functional value of the product (Ambler, 2003; Simon & Sullivan, 1993; Keller, 1993). Despite general agreement about the...
Show moreThe concept of brand equity has been widely recognized as both an academic construct and an important business consideration (Aaker, 1991; 1996; Farquhar, 1989; Kamakura & Russell, 1993; Keller, 1993; Gladden et al., 1998; Ross, 2006). The concept has been defined as the added value associated with a particular product that is accrued by a brand beyond the utilitarian or functional value of the product (Ambler, 2003; Simon & Sullivan, 1993; Keller, 1993). Despite general agreement about the definition of brand equity, the measurement of it is not well established (Christodoulides & de Chernatony, 2010; Keller & Lehmann, 2006). A critical challenge in this regard is developing the means necessary to assess the intangible elements that comprise a consumer's determination of brand equity. By using the CVM--a stated preference technique for estimating and assigning non-pecuniary values that are contingent on a specific hypothetical scenario or description of the products-- to measure an individual's willingness to pay for tangible and intangible elements from sports products, the brand equity of both spectator sports and participant sports can be estimated. A primary goal of the current study was to examine the willingness to pay Price Premiums for a sporting event, and estimate the brand equity of the sport product based on the Price Premiums by utilizing the CVM. Three research questions were examined: (1) Whether there is a difference between customers' willingness to pay for a branded event (i.e., IRONMAN triathlon event) compared to corresponding unbranded events (i.e., hypothetical non-IRONMAN triathlon event), (2) What the customer-based brand equity of a branded sporting event is, and (3) What factors significantly influence the Price Premium of a sporting event. To examine the equity of the IRONMAN brand and a consumer's determination of brand equity, data were collected at two triathlon events. The sample size was 349 combining responses from the Half and Full distance events. I asked two sets of questions for a consumer's willingness to pay a Price Premium: one for the branded sporting event (i.e., IRONMAN triathlon event) and the other for the unbranded hypothetical sporting event (i.e., non-IRONMAN triathlon event). The difference between a branded and an unbranded sporting event represents a Price Premium. I concluded from the results of an analysis of variance assessment indicated there was a statistically significant difference in willingness to pay for IRONMAN branded events compared to non-IRONMAN branded events. That is, triathletes were willing to pay additional Price Premiums for IRONMAN branded events. The aggregated Price Premiums for the target population were calculated to estimate the brand equity values based on the sport consumer perceptions. The equity of brand IRONMAN was approximately $102 million (Half distance) and $123 million (Full distance). To identify determinants that influence sport consumers' willingness to pay for one brand over the other, I proposed three potential regression models and tested them with through multiple regression analysis. Among ten Price Premium Determinants, Price-quality Inference, Brand Uniqueness, and Gender significantly influenced an individual consumer's willingness to pay a Price Premium. As the brand stands out, consumers were willing to pay a higher Price Premium. Also, as the degree that consumers believe an association between price and quality increases, their willingness to pay a Price Premium increases. Males tend to pay a higher Price Premium than Females. A significant contribution of the study is that this is a first attempt to estimate customer-based brand equity with the CVM, and an initial attempt to identify Price Premium determinants in the service-oriented product context. The dollar value of actual brand equity that is based on consumers' perceptions and evaluations may provide marketers and practitioners with several benefits such as a selling point for developing relationships with business partners, a starting point for business negotiations, and for leveraging partnerships (e.g., sponsors, media).
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9024
Format: Thesis

Title: Neurophysiological and Psychometric Assessment of Spectator Emotion: An Interdisciplinary Approach.
Creator: Lee, Hyun-Woo, Kim, Yu Kyoum, Ferris, Gerald R., James, Jeffrey D., Guerette, Amy R., LaPointe, Leonard L., Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: The author of this dissertation establishes an overarching framework of spectator emotion, proposes a research design, and provides initial evidence of the framework by multiple studies. In building the spectator emotion framework, an interdisciplinary perspective is applied to scrutinize the epistemological and ontological groundings of emotion; synthesize extant literature from various disciplines; establish the taxonomy of spectator emotion elements; and identify imperative variables for...
Show moreThe author of this dissertation establishes an overarching framework of spectator emotion, proposes a research design, and provides initial evidence of the framework by multiple studies. In building the spectator emotion framework, an interdisciplinary perspective is applied to scrutinize the epistemological and ontological groundings of emotion; synthesize extant literature from various disciplines; establish the taxonomy of spectator emotion elements; and identify imperative variables for the initial research design. In this, the author highlights the role of emotion by taking viewpoints of positive psychology and experiential marketing. In regards to the empirical examination, (1) both psychometric and neurophysiological measures were assessed as a cross-referenced multiple measure of emotion; (2) main effect and interaction effect of lateralization and social facilitation is evidenced by utilizing EEG ERP measures; and (3) structural equation modeling of the spectator emotion framework is supported through a cross-sectional survey. Specifically, the experimental research of lateralization and social facilitation was designed to examine the mere presence effect in a spectator sport setting. Results indicated that (1) psychometric and neurophysiological measures of positive emotion showed convergent-related validity; (2) main effect of lateralization and interaction with social facilitation was significant; and (3) mediating effect of emotion between personal internal states (extraversion; team identification) and outcomes (subjective happiness; spectator behavioral intentions) was significant. Predictors explained 35.1% of variance in subjective happiness, 56.9% in emotion, and 66.5% in spectator behavioral intentions. Deconstruction of the correlational structure showed complementary mediation for the path from extraversion to subjective happiness which implies that there is a likelihood of omitted variables in the framework. Indirect effect via emotion contributed 66.93% of the total effect from team identity to happiness, 68.91% of the total effect from extraversion to spectator intentions, and 76.63% of the total effect from team identification to spectator intentions. Indirect effect from extraversion to happiness indicated only weak partial mediation by explaining 8.48% of the total effect. Overall, the author proposes the spectator emotion framework and provides supporting evidences through a multiple studies. Together, such elaboration is expected to serve as a stepping stone research in fostering the study of emotion in a sporting context.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9026
Format: Thesis

Title: Football School: An Analysis of College Football Culture inside the Neoliberal University.
Creator: Ternes, Neal, Giardina, Michael, Newman, Joshua, James, Jeffery, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: The term "football school" has been disseminated in some manner or another in the popular press, by scholars, and by colleges for the past century. This label is shared and understood at a certain cultural level but research has yet to attempt to provide a detailed account of the implications of this term let alone provide a definition that takes into account the broader significance of football on college campuses. Football Saturdays on college campuses are unique to collegiate athletics in...
Show moreThe term "football school" has been disseminated in some manner or another in the popular press, by scholars, and by colleges for the past century. This label is shared and understood at a certain cultural level but research has yet to attempt to provide a detailed account of the implications of this term let alone provide a definition that takes into account the broader significance of football on college campuses. Football Saturdays on college campuses are unique to collegiate athletics in that the spectacle of sport is secondary to the experience of consuming the event. Fans and students pack in tailgating areas hours before as well as after a contest to share in the communal consumption of a football Saturday, indulging in countless hedonistic rituals that are in some cases as old as the game itself. These rituals, such as the Breakfast Club student bar crawl at Purdue University or the midnight yell practice at Texas A&M University, reflect particular community identities that have become woven into the fabric of college football programs. With the rise of the neoliberal university, football has been implicated in the branding process more than ever, with the identity of being a 'football school' actually becoming a valuable title in an increasingly competitive academic market. This has further complicated the linkage between the consumption of football culture and the academic identity of the university which supports the team. Fans actively consume football cultural forms and artifacts in the events preceding, during, and after a contest at big Football U's, but this consumption has gone largely unaddressed in defining what it means to be a "Football School" (Toma, 2003). With the intensification of football culture and the rise of the neoliberal university it is important to develop an understanding of how football fan identities exist and are co-opted as part of a branded university identity (Sperber, 2001). In this study I used comparative case studies of three different football schools to develop an understanding of what it means to be a football school at the subject institutions by addressing the following questions: Is football culture implicated in the power knowledge of the neoliberal university?; Is branded football culture consumed by members of the university community?; and does the surveillance of football culture on university campuses implicate members of the university community? I find that football within the branding of each university is utilized as the "front porch" of the institution at each school and this causes football culture, as well as the logics inherent in the football culture at each institution to overshadow the brand of the institutions themselves. Through the promotion of football culture, each university becomes complicit in reproducing the logics of neoliberalism as well as power knowledges of militarization, paleoconservative religious identity, and the image of "beer and circus". For each institution I visited, I find that the unique combination of power logics of each individual space are located within the football identity of the institution and that football becomes the site of manufactured consent for power logics that are often anathema to the stated goals of each institutions brand.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-8898
Format: Thesis

Title: The Relationship of Job Demands and Job Resources in Work Engagement of Sport Volunteers.
Creator: McMorrow, Thomas F., James, Jeffrey D., Ferris, Gerald R., Perrewé, Pamela L., Rodenberg, Ryan M., Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: Sport organizations rely on volunteers to accomplish their missions. Volunteers are a finite resource whose supply may not keep up with the ever increasing demand (Bussell & Forbes, 2002; Cuskelly, 2004). The number of organizations dependent on volunteer workers is increasing, while the number of individuals willing to volunteer is decreasing. While recruiting volunteers is important to sport organizations, retention of volunteers may be more important in order to remain viable in the...
Show moreSport organizations rely on volunteers to accomplish their missions. Volunteers are a finite resource whose supply may not keep up with the ever increasing demand (Bussell & Forbes, 2002; Cuskelly, 2004). The number of organizations dependent on volunteer workers is increasing, while the number of individuals willing to volunteer is decreasing. While recruiting volunteers is important to sport organizations, retention of volunteers may be more important in order to remain viable in the competitive arena of volunteer services. Retention of volunteers should be a priority for reasons of efficiency since organizations would save time, effort, and money they would otherwise spend on recruitment and training. To assist practitioner's efforts to retain volunteers, researchers should investigate avenues to advance our understanding of volunteer retention. Toward this end the purpose of this study was three-fold: 1) to present a conceptual model illustrating the relationship between job demands and job resources as they relate to work engagement of sport volunteers leading to sport volunteer performance, commitment, satisfaction, and retention, 2) to investigate whether there were differences in volunteer engagement based on whether individuals were volunteering to work at sporting versus non-sporting events, and 3) exploring if there were differences based on a volunteer's generational cohort. A questionnaire was constructed incorporating measurements scales drawn from the literature which were modified to be applicable to the volunteer milieu, as well as items added by the researcher to assess content for which there were no items available in the existing literature. The questionnaire was vetted by an expert panel with the final version incorporated into the study. Nine hypotheses about the relationships in the proposed model were posited. Evidence from the study was found to support eight of the nine hypotheses. Based on the evidence from the data analysis, the following conclusions were drawn: the job resource with the greatest impact on volunteer engagement was social support, followed closely by feedback and supervisor support; job demands had a negative impact on volunteer engagement. There was an inverse relationship between job demands and job resources in regard to engagement in the volunteer context; sporting event volunteers did not exhibit different levels of engagement than those volunteering with non-sporting events. Volunteers representing different generations did exhibit differing preferences in regard to job resources while volunteering.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-8844
Format: Thesis

Title: One for the (Sports) Books: A Case Study on Scandal in College Athletics.
Creator: Marshall, Erin, Rodenberg, Ryan, Giardina, Michael, Houck, Davis, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: Florida State University was thrust into the spotlight after quarterback Adrian McPherson was dismissed from the football team following allegations that included sports gambling. In the era of big-time college athletics, it is vital for institutions to respond effectively when issues arise that could negatively affect the school's image. The increase of sports-related scandals plaguing universities in recent years has led to the application of crisis communication theories to many athletic...
Show moreFlorida State University was thrust into the spotlight after quarterback Adrian McPherson was dismissed from the football team following allegations that included sports gambling. In the era of big-time college athletics, it is vital for institutions to respond effectively when issues arise that could negatively affect the school's image. The increase of sports-related scandals plaguing universities in recent years has led to the application of crisis communication theories to many athletic department crises. The purpose of this thesis is to utilize archived primary source documents, newspaper articles, and Foucauldian discourse analysis of crisis communications strategies to summarize and analyze the comparative discourses of those involved in the McPherson case. By studying the variations in individual accounts of the events in this case, it is possible to gain insight into the complex relationship between athletic departments, the NCAA, student-athletes, and the media.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-8839
Format: Thesis

Title: ‘Unprecedented’: A Study of the National Football League’s Regulation of Labor Through Punishment.
Creator: Lovich, Justin M., Newman, Joshua I., Chiricos, Theodore G. (Theodore George), Giardina, Michael D., Rodenberg, Ryan M., Florida State University, College of Education,...
Show moreLovich, Justin M., Newman, Joshua I., Chiricos, Theodore G. (Theodore George), Giardina, Michael D., Rodenberg, Ryan M., Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
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Abstract/Description: The contemporary National Football League (NFL) now sits atop the zenith of American sport business, with unmatched economic growth and popularity. Its success can be measured in terms of revenues, in high television ratings, and in live attendance for its games each week. This dissertation looks into the extent to which the NFL's success--in maintaining a marketable brand image and spectacular corporeal commodity form--is attributable to its distinctive three-pronged system of player...
Show moreThe contemporary National Football League (NFL) now sits atop the zenith of American sport business, with unmatched economic growth and popularity. Its success can be measured in terms of revenues, in high television ratings, and in live attendance for its games each week. This dissertation looks into the extent to which the NFL's success--in maintaining a marketable brand image and spectacular corporeal commodity form--is attributable to its distinctive three-pronged system of player governance and punishment: mechanisms for the adjudication of off-field player behavior; mechanisms for the adjudication of on-field player behavior; and mechanisms for the adjudication of player use of proscribed substances. This study will incorporate juridical policy analysis to understand the mechanisms through which such punishment is enacted and enforced, and Foucauldian discourse analysis to disciplinary power imbedded within, and activated by, popular governance rhetoric. It is concluded herein that the NFL's success is attributed to a paradox of liberal economic governance--cartel-structured laissez-faire economic relations--and authoritarian governance of labor activity (on and off the field).
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9211
Format: Thesis

Title: Relationships as Strategic Assets: Sport Fan Equity.
Creator: Kim, Young Do, Kim, Yukyoum, Kim, Daekwan, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Paek, Insu, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: Given the impressive growth and soaring popularity of watching live sporting events, sport organizations continue to search for ways to maintain or even improve this trend. Indeed, one significant and increasingly advocated approach--that of ensuring that sport organizations remain competitive and can sufficiently meet the demands of the sport marketplace--is a consumer-oriented paradigm. In the growing shift toward such a consumer-oriented paradigm, consumers are viewed as the most valuable...
Show moreGiven the impressive growth and soaring popularity of watching live sporting events, sport organizations continue to search for ways to maintain or even improve this trend. Indeed, one significant and increasingly advocated approach--that of ensuring that sport organizations remain competitive and can sufficiently meet the demands of the sport marketplace--is a consumer-oriented paradigm. In the growing shift toward such a consumer-oriented paradigm, consumers are viewed as the most valuable assets for an organization. However, in the valuation of sport franchises, very little research has focused on or evaluated the asset value of sport consumers. Therefore, through this dissertation I conceptualize and endeavor to measure sport fan equity (SFE) in order to provide a better understanding of the evaluation of sport consumers. A three-fold study was undertaken to validate the measurement of SFE, generate the overall SFE index, and examine the hypothesized relationships between key marketing drivers and SFE. In the first study, a first-order confirmatory factor analysis was employed to assess the overall factor structure and validity of the SFE model. Based on the results of the study, which was based on a sample of FSU Seminoles Baseball fans (119 = pilot test; 314 = main study), a seven-factor model consisting of (1) Customer Lifetime Value, (2) Positive Word of Mouth, (3) Learning, (4) Display of Team Affiliation, (5) Trust, (6) Commitment, and (7) Self-Connection was developed by the author. These seven factors were represented by financial, behavioral, and relationship-based components of SFE. In the second study, a Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) method was implemented to obtain a comprehensive index to evaluate the asset value of a sport consumer. Prior to the use of the SAW method, a Customer Lifetime Valuation (CLV) estimation method was employed to calculate the projected financial contribution of individual sport consumers. The average SFE of the FSU Seminole Baseball fans was estimated as 43.2 out of 100. The average SFE is the sum of the average scores of individual SFE components: financial value (8.5 out of 55.25), behavioral value (15.3 out of 22.37), and relationship value (19.4 out of 22.37). In the third study, a structural regression model, a two-step approach, was employed to examine the hypothesized relationships between key marketing drivers and SFE. The results from an empirical examination of the hypothesized model confirmed a positive and significant relationship between Value Equity and SFE, as well as between Relationship Equity and SFE, as reported in previous studies. However, Brand Equity was found to have a non-significant impact on SFE. The asset value of sport consumers surveyed as part of this dissertation provided essential criteria for estimating overall sport franchise value from the consumer's perspective. In particular, the study provides a comprehensive/simultaneous measurement of customer profitability, behavioral contributions, and psychological commitment, all of which are vital to sport practitioners' more complete and applied understanding of how to better estimate the true value of sport consumers. The results of this dissertation further advance our knowledge of the overall mechanism of SFE and also provide more research opportunities to extend the SFE literature, thereby undergirding the knowledge of SFE in the field of sport management.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9198
Format: Thesis

Title: The Influence of Marketing Mix Variables on Taekwondo Participants' Satisfaction and Post-Purchase Behavior.
Creator: Na, Sangwon, James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Newman, Joshua I., Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: Taekwondo (TKD) is a popular form of martial arts. The number of TKD academies has increased in the U. S., and there is intense competition among the academies. To compete in a challenging environment, a marketing mix is recognized as a key element in management of a TKD academy. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of select marketing mix variables on the satisfaction of TKD trainees and their post-purchase behavior. Questionnaires were distributed as part of the study; the...
Show moreTaekwondo (TKD) is a popular form of martial arts. The number of TKD academies has increased in the U. S., and there is intense competition among the academies. To compete in a challenging environment, a marketing mix is recognized as a key element in management of a TKD academy. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of select marketing mix variables on the satisfaction of TKD trainees and their post-purchase behavior. Questionnaires were distributed as part of the study; the questionnaires consisted of seven marketing mix variables (product, price, place, promotion, participants, process, and physical evidence), satisfaction, and post-purchasing behavior (word-of-mouth and intention to continue participation). The questionnaires were derived from preexisting instruments and developed to assess the determinants of TKD participants' satisfaction and their post-purchase behavior in relation to the marketing mix variables. A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed through convenience sampling at TKD academies located in San Diego, Oceanside, Irvine, Murrieta, California; Tampa, Florida; Duluth, Georgia; Raleigh, Fuquay-Varina, North Carolina; and Midlothian, Virginia. A total of 265 questionnaires were analyzed using statistical methods with PASW for Windows 20.0 program and Amos 18.0 program. The data analysis was included: frequency analysis for the demographic characteristics; assessment of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity for the assumption tests of multivariate analysis; computation of Cronbach's alpha coefficients and item-to-total correlations for evidence of reliability; Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient for evidence of discriminant validity; confirmatory factor analysis for evidence of construct validity; and path coefficient analysis to verify the research hypotheses. I concluded from the findings of this study that the product, promotion, participants, and process variables positively impacted trainees' satisfaction. On the other hand, price, place, and physical evidence did not impact trainees' satisfaction. Furthermore, trainees' satisfaction positively impacted their post-purchase behaviors which are intention to continue participation and word-of mouth. One implication is that TKD academy managers should continue developing the product by providing programs such as demonstration or sparring classes for adult trainees. In addition, offering social media services could be effective as a promotional tool. TKD instructors should develop physical abilities and have good personalities. Hiring interns could strengthen the fluency of TKD instruction processes.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9221
Format: Thesis

Title: Responses to Professional Sports Teams CSR Initiatives Following Natural Disaster.
Creator: Okoshi, Kosuke, James, Jeffrey, Newman, Joshua, Kim, Yu Kyoum, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: On March 11, 2011, the Northeastern Area (Tohoku) of Japan experienced the largest earthquake and tsunami ever recorded in this area. Following the disasters, professional sports organizations conducted disaster relief efforts by hosting charity matches, visiting temporary housing areas (mentoring and listening to victims), creating awareness using different logos in/around the public areas, etc. These activities are considered corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. CSR has been a...
Show moreOn March 11, 2011, the Northeastern Area (Tohoku) of Japan experienced the largest earthquake and tsunami ever recorded in this area. Following the disasters, professional sports organizations conducted disaster relief efforts by hosting charity matches, visiting temporary housing areas (mentoring and listening to victims), creating awareness using different logos in/around the public areas, etc. These activities are considered corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. CSR has been a popular topic in the sports world, but little attention has been paid to CSR activities following natural disasters. The purpose of this research was to assess the community members' responses to sport organizations based on CSR initiatives after a natural disaster. The nature of this research was exploratory; interviews were conducted with individuals living in the geographic area directly impacted by the Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami in Japan in 2011. The interviewees were also involved with the relief efforts to some extent. Through this research I explored the degree to which the recipients were aware of the relief efforts, the effects, and their attitudes toward the sports organizations/players. Based on the interview responses, the relief efforts by the professional sports organizations were well known, and the activities not only enhanced the image and reputations of the organizations and players, but also improved the recipients' psychological connections (i.e. familiarity, interest, and attachment) with the organizations and/or the players.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9063
Format: Thesis

Title: The Effects of Brand, Design, and Price on Intent to Purchase an Activity Tracker.
Creator: Oh, Kyoungwhan, James, Jeffrey, Kim, Yu Kyoum, Wells, Janelle E., Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: As technology development has made the world better, the benefits of such development are also increasingly related to sports activities. Many sports devices have been combined with Information Technology (IT). One great example is an IT-combined sport device called "Activity Tracker." It is a device that is worn on the body and records a user's body status such as calories burned, steps walked, or heart rates. With people's increasing attention to their health, it is expected that the...
Show moreAs technology development has made the world better, the benefits of such development are also increasingly related to sports activities. Many sports devices have been combined with Information Technology (IT). One great example is an IT-combined sport device called "Activity Tracker." It is a device that is worn on the body and records a user's body status such as calories burned, steps walked, or heart rates. With people's increasing attention to their health, it is expected that the popularity of the devices will increase. To aid in the sales of activity trackers in a competitive market, the manufacturers should be familiar with the impact of product cues such as brand, price, and design on consumers' perceived quality, which will influence their willingness to buy. The study was quantitative; paper and pencil questionnaires were utilized. The instruments were derived from three existing studies. The study participants were Florida State University undergraduate and graduate students; 200 questionnaires were distributed to students enrolled in Lifetime Activity Program (LAP) courses and/or visiting a recreation center on campus. The final sample size was 144 participants. The data was analyzed using several statistical methods with PASW Statistics 20.0. From the descriptive statistics, the frequency counts and/or mean scores were computed for profiling the participants. The Cronbach's alpha scores, and item-to-total correlations were utilized to assess the internal consistency of the factors measured with the questionnaires. The assumptions of multiple regression, including as normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity were assessed. Multiple regressions were utilized to gauge the extent to which price, brand, and design influence perceived quality. As the final step, a simple regression was utilized to measure the relationship between perceived quality and willingness to buy. Examination of this data revealed several significant results regarding the relationships between product cues, perceived quality, and willingness to buy. While brand (t=6.779; p<.05; beta=.522) and design (t=5.934; p<.05; beta=.450) had a positive impact on perceived quality, price (t=-1.681; p>.05; beta=-.139) had no significant impact on perceived quality. Perceived quality (t=6.060; p<.05; beta=.453) had a positive impact on willingness to buy; however, the variance (20%) accounted for in willingness to buy was low, meaning that there may be mediating variables between perceived quality and willingness to buy.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-8861
Format: Thesis

Title: An Exploratory Case Study of Post-Scandal Media Representations of Athlete Philanthropic Foundations.
Creator: Ji, Yue, Newman, Joshua I., James, Jeffrey D. (Jeffrey Dalton), Kim, Amy Chan Hyung, Florida State University, College of Education, Department of Sport Management
Abstract/Description: As a central component of the sports industry, athletes are now playing roles far beyond what they do on the field of play, including making contributions to society as philanthropists. Many professional athletes from around the world have established their own philanthropic foundations. However, given that professional athletes are now under frequent media scrutiny because of their celebrity status and perceived financial standing--and particularly once there are scandals or transgressions...
Show moreAs a central component of the sports industry, athletes are now playing roles far beyond what they do on the field of play, including making contributions to society as philanthropists. Many professional athletes from around the world have established their own philanthropic foundations. However, given that professional athletes are now under frequent media scrutiny because of their celebrity status and perceived financial standing--and particularly once there are scandals or transgressions involving those celebrity athletes--the media will likely attenuate to those incidents via their respective platforms. Subsequently, this mass mediation will likely affect the general public' perceptions towards their philanthropy foundations since these organizations are in direct link with these famous athletes. Therefore, the aim of this research is to shed some light on the ways in which the media frames athletes' transgressions as they relate to those athletes' philanthropic foundations. In order to achieve this purpose, a content analysis was utilized to study the media coverage of a specific case: Tiger Woods' adultery affairs with multiple women behind his wife's back in 2009. By identifying what the multi-media have suggested about the impacts Woods' infidelity scandal has on his Tiger Woods Foundation, this case study will assess the extent to which the foundation is implicated in media due to his personal controversies.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9193
Format: Thesis

Title: The Impact of Psychological State Incongruity on Sport Consumer Memory for Marketing Stimuli.
Creator: Smith, Robert, James, Jeffrey, Smith, Jeffery, Kim, Yu Kyoum, Cronin, J. Joseph, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: This dissertation provides an exploration into the intricate relationship between the emotional volatility extant during spectator sport consumption and consumer memory for marketing stimuli. Emotional activity is measured across two dimensions (i.e., emotional arousal and valence), and an experimental methodology is implemented that allows for the competition of several theoretical predictions deriving from a variety of domains pertaining to the effect of volatility within each dimension...
Show moreThis dissertation provides an exploration into the intricate relationship between the emotional volatility extant during spectator sport consumption and consumer memory for marketing stimuli. Emotional activity is measured across two dimensions (i.e., emotional arousal and valence), and an experimental methodology is implemented that allows for the competition of several theoretical predictions deriving from a variety of domains pertaining to the effect of volatility within each dimension upon consumer memory. Regarding the arousal-memory interaction, these predictions include (1) the arousal enhancement hypothesis, which predicts a comprehensive improvement in memory due to the presence of emotional arousal, (2) the cognitive resource allocation model, which predicts a comprehensive decline in memory due to the presence of emotional arousal, (3) the peripheral neglect hypothesis, which predicts the enhancement of memory for temporally, conceptually, and spatially central information and impairment of memory for peripheral information due to the presence of emotional arousal, and (4) state dependent memory, which refers to the phenomenon that memory relies upon a consistency in psychological contexts across encoding and retrieval. Regarding the valence-memory interaction, three predictions were tested: (1) positive valence effect, which refers to the prediction that emotional valence is positively related to probability of recall, (2) selectivity for valenced stimuli, which refers to the tendency to selectively encode/retrieve information with a non-neutral affective tone, and (3) state-dependent encoding, which refers to the tendency to selectively encode information with an affective tone that is congruent with one's current emotional valence state. This research provides support for a state-dependent view of the emotion-memory relationship. Recall patterns also approximated those predicted by the peripheral neglect hypothesis. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are provided
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9097
Format: Thesis

Title: Factors Influencing Collegiate Volleyball Shoe Selection: An Institutionalized Perspective.
Creator: Robinson, Amanda L., Wells, Janelle E., James, Jeffrey D., Newman, Joshua I., Reynaud, B. Cecile, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: It is not uncommon for a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I school to have an athletic apparel contract (AAC) with an established athletic apparel company. These relationships have evolved over time to the point that the AACs seem to have become institutionalized in collegiate athletics. Institutionalization refers to the repetition of organizational arrangements (Washington & Patterson, 2009) to the point that it exists as a 'norm' within a culture. While there are...
Show moreIt is not uncommon for a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I school to have an athletic apparel contract (AAC) with an established athletic apparel company. These relationships have evolved over time to the point that the AACs seem to have become institutionalized in collegiate athletics. Institutionalization refers to the repetition of organizational arrangements (Washington & Patterson, 2009) to the point that it exists as a 'norm' within a culture. While there are certain benefits to these contracts, there are also associated risks. AACs often include clauses requiring every student-athlete at the school to wear brand name apparel for practice and competition, regardless of satisfaction with the product. Considering volleyball is typically a non-revenue generating sport at many NCAA Division I schools, student-athletes are often required to wear a certain type of shoe due to contract restrictions. Problems may arise if the sponsored shoes do not meet the needs, specifically the health and safety needs, of the student-athlete. Coaches are often involved in the selection of the teams' shoes, while athletic trainers must manage any medical consequences resulting from ill-fitting shoes. Given the notion that AACs have been institutionalized in the collegiate athletic setting, including restricted shoe selection, this study was conducted to gain insight into the factors influencing volleyball shoe selection. The study was qualitative and involved semi-structured interviews with 11 volleyball coaches and athletic trainers in the Southeastern and Atlantic Coast athletic conferences. For purposes of data analysis, the researcher utilized the four dialogic moments as described by Markula and Silk (2011): recalling, listening around, close reading, and representing self and others. Results were presented according to coaches and athletic trainers, separately. Factors identified by coaches were the evidence of dissatisfaction, general benefits of a school's AAC, insufficient volleyball shoe options from sponsors, and medical concerns. Factors identified by athletic trainers included medical concerns, general benefits of a school's AAC, and insufficient volleyball shoe options from the sponsor. In general, results of this study supported the notion that AACs have become institutionalized in select NCAA Division I volleyball programs through the development of volleyball teams being a dependent beneficiary from their school's AAC. While the sponsored brands met participants' expectations in regard to the quantity of volleyball shoes provided, the sponsored brands did not meet participants' expectations regarding quality. Overall, participants were willing to overlook these negative concerns for the benefit of their athletic department as a whole. The subject matter adds value to the sport management profession by providing sport managers, Division I schools, and athletic apparel sponsors a perspective on the sponsor-school relationship as it pertains to athletic apparel contracts, but further research into other sports' shoe selection processes, as well as the student-athletes' and sponsored brands' perception of the effect of an AAC is needed.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9080
Format: Thesis

Title: The Formation and Influence of Price Perceptions on Behavioral Intentions: The Case of Dynamic Pricing Strategy.
Creator: Suh, Wang Suk, Kim, Yu Kyoum, James, Jeffrey, Rodenberg, Ryan, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: Dynamic pricing has become one of the most popular pricing strategies of developed online shopping environments and provides efficiency for both providers and consumers in the service industry. Spectator sport providers have recently adopted dynamic ticket pricing (DTP), which is a type of dynamic pricing and discriminated prices, as a result of DTP, may lead to perceptions of unfairness, especially during the early stages of its adoption. The aim of the current research was to develop a...
Show moreDynamic pricing has become one of the most popular pricing strategies of developed online shopping environments and provides efficiency for both providers and consumers in the service industry. Spectator sport providers have recently adopted dynamic ticket pricing (DTP), which is a type of dynamic pricing and discriminated prices, as a result of DTP, may lead to perceptions of unfairness, especially during the early stages of its adoption. The aim of the current research was to develop a conceptual framework based on relevant consumer psychology theories, including distributive and procedural justice, equity, and social comparison theories, in order to empirically investigate the formation and influence of perceptions of price fairness. Four categories of questions corresponding to a given scenario were employed via a questionnaire to collect data: predictors of price fairness, perceptions of price fairness, behavioral intentions, and demographic sections. Participants who define themselves as current or potential sports consumers were selected using a convenient sampling method in a face-to-face mode. After verifying the items using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed to examine: (1) the influence of predictors of price fairness (i.e., magnitude and temporal proximity price difference, perceived nonmonetary sacrifice, and price setter fairness) on perceptions of price fairness; (2) differences in degrees of influence on perceptions of price fairness between the two groups of price fairness predictors (i.e., similar other-reference and self-reference group) depending on comparison targets; and (3) the influence of perceptions of price fairness on behavioral intentions. Using SEM the hypotheses were tested. First, magnitude of price difference was strongly and negatively associated with perception of price fairness, while temporal proximity positively influence the fairness perception. Also, price setter fairness was positively consistent with perception of price fairness. Furthermore, it was found that created perception of price fairness was negatively correlated with self-protection and revenge intentions, although the fairness perception positively effects repurchase intentions. The current research was expected to contribute to the soft landing of DTP in the spectator sport industry by providing critical information of factors determining price fairness judgment, and the effects of perceptions of price fairness on behavioral intentions for better understanding of DTP for both researchers and practitioners.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-9102
Format: Thesis

Title: The Politics of Golf Course Development: An Examination of the Economic, Social, and Environmental Effects of Golf Course Development on Its Primary Stakeholders in the Republic of Panama.
Creator: Farr, Donald G., Giardina, Michael D., Ferris, Gerald R., James, Jeffrey D., Newman, Joshua I., Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: ABSTRACT Since the year 2000, the number of golfers in the United States has steadily declined (National Golf Foundations, 2013). Coupled with an oversupply of golf courses and a sluggish real estate market, this drop has contributed to a cessation in domestic golf course development. This same failed model that incorporates golf courses as amenities to sell real estate is being reproduced in developing countries searching for an economic panacea. Golf courses are being developed in emerging...
Show moreABSTRACT Since the year 2000, the number of golfers in the United States has steadily declined (National Golf Foundations, 2013). Coupled with an oversupply of golf courses and a sluggish real estate market, this drop has contributed to a cessation in domestic golf course development. This same failed model that incorporates golf courses as amenities to sell real estate is being reproduced in developing countries searching for an economic panacea. Golf courses are being developed in emerging nations for the primary purpose of financial reward, with minimal regard for environmental or social sustainability (Wheeler & Nauright, 2006). The public is often led to believe that golf course development will create employment opportunities for the community, bring boundless fiscal returns in the form of tax revenues and increased tourism, and attract additional small businesses to the region (Lim & Patterson, 2008). During my visits to Panama, I saw the beginnings of this unsustainable practice of golf course development being touted as an economic cure-all, all possible because of President Martinelli's free-market policies encouraging foreign development through free-trade agreements, relocation tax incentives, and limited restrictions on foreign capital. Panama is an emerging country. Under current President Martinelli's tenure, Panama's poverty rate dropped from 33% to 26%, its unemployment rate declined from 12% to 4.4%, its literacy rate is 95%, while its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) index to debt ratio is 39.2% (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). The country is currently expanding the Panama Canal (more than doubling its earning capacity), building a metro system in the capital city, and constructing an airport in the country's interior to provide tourists with convenient access to the new beachfront golf resorts and housing projects developed over the past ten years. The Club de Panama hosts the Buy.com Tour's first golf event of the season, positioning Panama as the golf xiv mecca of Central America. The political environment is primed for golf course development in Panama, foreign investors are being incentivized to relocate, and American golf companies have already established their presence. As I examined the economic, environmental, and social sustainability of golf course development in Panama and its effects on key stakeholders, the information I gathered via ethnography strongly points towards the Panamanian government's neo-liberal initiatives as a significant contributor to the growth of golf course development. Additionally, the results of the study lead me to the conclusion that stakeholders affected by golf course development do not benefit or suffer equally, as suggested by Orridge (1981) and Marsden (1995). The current U.S. model of utilizing golf courses as an amenity to sell real estate is not sustainable; in fact, none of the ownership models discussed in the literature are in themselves sufficient to ensure equal benefit to all primary stakeholders. In summary, golf continues to be a sport synonymous with capitalist societies; however, without the introduction of a more balanced alternative to golf course development and operations, many key stakeholders in Panama may be at risk should these facilities fail to provide their investors an adequate profit.
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Date Issued: 2014
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-8983
Format: Thesis

Title: The Role of Mixed Emotions and Counterfactual Thinking in the Formation of Consumer Satisfaction within the Spectator Sport Context.
Creator: Kim, Jun Woo, James, Jeffrey D., Perrewe, Pamela L., Kim, Yu Kyoum, Roehrig, Alysia D., Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: Consumer behavior researchers have found that satisfaction is a key predictor of repeat purchase, positive word-of-mouth, loyalty, and ultimately profitability of a firm. While researchers have worked to better understand the relationship between consumer retention variables and satisfaction, there are few studies examining the determinants and consequences of consumer satisfaction within the spectator sport context. Traditional approaches to consumer satisfaction research have emphasized the...
Show moreConsumer behavior researchers have found that satisfaction is a key predictor of repeat purchase, positive word-of-mouth, loyalty, and ultimately profitability of a firm. While researchers have worked to better understand the relationship between consumer retention variables and satisfaction, there are few studies examining the determinants and consequences of consumer satisfaction within the spectator sport context. Traditional approaches to consumer satisfaction research have emphasized the theory of expectancy disconfirmation for explaining consumer satisfaction. This approach, however, is not without limitations. Therefore, counterfactual thinking is proposed as an alternative comparison standard of sport consumer satisfaction, which is a useful framework to explain how satisfaction is formed based on a "what might have been" heuristic. In addition to counterfactual thinking, it is also important to better understand the effect of emotion on counterfactual thinking. A substantial body of satisfaction research focuses on the role of emotion in predicting consumer satisfaction. Little is known, however, about whether happiness and sadness, two opposite-valence emotions, can be experienced simultaneously, and whether mixed emotions result in downward or upward counterfactual thinking. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether sport consumers can experience mixed emotions and to test the reaction of a sport consumer contemplating different counterfactual alternatives influenced by emotions. This study also includes an examination of whether consideration of an upward counterfactual comparison reduces sport consumer satisfaction, and whether consideration of a downward counterfactual comparison enhances sport consumer satisfaction. Finally, I sought to provide insight into the effect of counterfactual direction on sport consumer behavioral intentions. The results of Study 1 provide information from which to assess H1a through H1d. The highest level of positive emotion was reported from viewing a straight win game, whereas the highest level of negative emotion was reported from those viewing a straight loss. Importantly, sport consumers could experience positive and negative emotions concurrently while watching a conflicting game outcome such as disappointing win and relieving loss. Regarding the relationship between emotions and counterfactual directions (H2a through H3b), the results of Study 2 provide evidence that positive emotion is a strong antecedent to downward counterfactual thinking, and negative emotion is a significant predictor of upward counterfactual thinking. However, no significant interaction effect of mixed emotions and dialectical thinking in predicting counterfactual directions was found. To test the direct impacts of counterfactual directions on sport consumer satisfaction and behavioral intentions (H4a through H6), Study 3 was conducted. The results of Study 3 provide evidence that sport consumers who generated downward counterfactual thinking had a significantly higher level of satisfaction than those who generated upward counterfactual thinking. We may infer from these results that sport consumers who engaged in "what might have been worse" mental simulation of alternative possible outcomes were satisfied to a greater extent with team performance than those who engaged in "what might have been better" mental simulation. Another finding from Study 3 was that downward counterfactual thinking was a significant predictor of behavioral intentions. Finally, satisfaction was a strong antecedent of behavioral intentions, account for approximately 29% of the variance. This study is a first attempt to empirically test and conceptualize counterfactual thinking as an alternative comparison standard in sport consumer satisfaction formation. The study contributes to the literature on sport consumer satisfaction by examining how sport consumers use a "what might have been" heuristic in the formation of satisfaction. From a broader perspective, this study adds to a growing interest in experiences of emotional ambivalence in the spectator sports setting and what impact such experience might have on counterfactual thinking.
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Date Issued: 2013
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-7866
Format: Thesis

Title: Civic Paternalism in Political Policymaking: The Justification for No-Vote Stadium Subsidies and the Public Response.
Creator: Kellison, Timothy B., James, Jeffrey D., Ferris, Gerald R., Chapin, Timothy S., Kim, Yu Kyoum, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: The contribution of the professional sports stadium to the American city has long been debated by team owners, elected officials, scholars, activists, fans, sportswriters, and ordinary citizens. This debate intensifies whenever the possibility of publicly funding a stadium's construction or renovation is raised. Traditionally, the question of public investment has been decided by voters via the tools of direct democracy, including the referendum and initiative. However, since 2005, 24 stadium...
Show moreThe contribution of the professional sports stadium to the American city has long been debated by team owners, elected officials, scholars, activists, fans, sportswriters, and ordinary citizens. This debate intensifies whenever the possibility of publicly funding a stadium's construction or renovation is raised. Traditionally, the question of public investment has been decided by voters via the tools of direct democracy, including the referendum and initiative. However, since 2005, 24 stadium projects have been allocated over $8.5 billion of public funds without any form of voter approval. The practice of allocating public funds toward a project without direct public consent is referred to as the no-vote subsidy. Left without the evidence of ballot results or poll numbers, policymakers can suppose the will of the people at large to match their own preferences. Civil servants and citizens alike must consider the consequences of policies that are--at least in perception and sometimes in reality--unreflective of the electorate's preferences. One of the most recent instances of the no-vote subsidy occurred in Columbus, Ohio, where county commissioners and city councilmembers approved the purchase of the city's downtown arena using tax revenues generated from a local casino. Though this subsidy was made without a public vote, Columbus residents had already set a precedent by opposing five stadium-financing issues over 35 years. In this study, I considered the impact of this financing plan from the perspectives of both policymakers and the citizenry. There were three broad purposes of this study: to understand the political rationale of public policymakers involved in this specific case of a no-vote subsidy; to identify the factors that contribute to citizens regarding a subsidy favorably or unfavorably; and to examine the public response to the no-vote subsidy. This study was carried out in two phases. In the first phase, standardized, open-ended interviews were conducted in-person with seven individuals having personal connections to the Columbus stadium-financing case. These policymakers acknowledged the possibility that their decision to purchase the arena contradicted the public will. This admission was reconciled by a belief in a form of democratic representation known as civic paternalism, in which policymakers rely on their own expertise and point to their beliefs that such policies serve the best interests of the entire community, including individual citizens, the local economy, and the city's overall image. Additionally, civically paternalistic policymakers who make such decisions are either (1) willing to accept the accompanying political fallout or (2) confident that their actions will not negatively impact their future political career. In the second phase of the study, a survey was developed to measure the attitudes of Columbus residents toward a number of individuals, groups, and institutions, including civil servants, policy benefactors, and the democratic process in general. A pilot survey of 158 central Ohio residents was used to examine the psychometric properties of the initial instrument. Upon item modification, insertion, and deletion, a 55-item survey was finalized for the principal analysis. From a pool of over 625,000 registered voters in Franklin County, 5,000 individuals were randomly selected and received a survey packet. A total of 401 usable surveys were returned and included in the principal study analysis. The results of structural model testing provided support for six of 11 hypotheses. Two additional hypotheses received partial support, two were left unsupported, and one was not examined. Both perceived arena impact and trust in civically paternalistic leadership were significant predictors of one's attitude toward the public-financing plan. In turn, this attitude toward the financing deal impacted attitudes toward the arena's primary tenant, policymakers associated with the plan, and the democratic process in general. The results of this study indicated that though ultimately immaterial in the public-financing decision, public perception of the deal was not inconsequential. Data analysis also showed that how voters felt about the stadium-financing agreement influenced their attitudes toward the arena's primary tenant, democratic decision-making, and local policymakers. In this particular case, it was also suggested a slight public majority of the public approved of the financing plan. The no-vote subsidy is an increasingly common means of public-stadium financing that has failed to capture the attention of scholars. The research questions proposed and subsequently answered were an initial attempt to consider the sociopolitical implications of the no-vote subsidy. Future efforts to study civic paternalism and the no-vote subsidy should come from many directions and rely on a variety of methodologies. Such diverse approaches are necessary if the controversies surrounding public-stadium finance and the American democracy are to be studied in earnest.
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Date Issued: 2013
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-7445
Format: Thesis

Title: Managing Coed Soccer: Gender, Power, and Participation.
Creator: Flanagan, Mary Katherine, Giardina, Michael D., Nudd, Donna M., Newman, Joshua I., James, Jeffrey D., Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: Soccer (also referred to as football) is considered the world's most popular sport. (Dunning, 1999; Economist, 2005; Mueller, Guttmann, 1993; Cantu & Vancamp, 1996). Across the globe, over 400 million men, women and children watch and play soccer in over 200 countries (Jensen, 2011). Even in the United States, where the professional game is often marginalized, youth soccer records equally high participation rates for both boys and girls (Sabo, 2008). Although participation in soccer generally...
Show moreSoccer (also referred to as football) is considered the world's most popular sport. (Dunning, 1999; Economist, 2005; Mueller, Guttmann, 1993; Cantu & Vancamp, 1996). Across the globe, over 400 million men, women and children watch and play soccer in over 200 countries (Jensen, 2011). Even in the United States, where the professional game is often marginalized, youth soccer records equally high participation rates for both boys and girls (Sabo, 2008). Although participation in soccer generally decreases with age at a higher rate relative to other team sports, the trend is slower among women (National Sporting Goods Association, 2011), which some scholars have referred to as the `feminization of soccer' (Andrews, 1997; Sugden, 1994). Cultural milestones such as the institution of Title IX in 1972, the short-lived Women's United Soccer Association and Women's Professional Soccer leagues, and the increased visibility of the Women's World Cup have contributed to this phenomenon. While there is ample research on cultural discourses relating to class, gender and ideologies that are reproduced on and around the youth soccer field (Swanson, 2009), and likewise on forms of social capital, disciplined bodies, work ethic and middle-class family values that are embodied therein (Andrews, 1997; Swanson, 2009), there is less research surrounding adult participation in soccer and the cultural representations it enacts, embodies, and reproduces. At the adult level, coed soccer recreational soccer leagues are a relatively recent trend (Henry & Comeaux, 1999). In comparison to youth and even adolescent soccer leagues, among adult soccer players there is typically a larger imbalance in the number of men and women participating (National Sporting Goods Association, 2001). According to the United States Adult Soccer Association (USASA), the national governing board for adult soccer leagues, of the organizations 251,000 members approximately 25 percent are women (S. Schroedl, personal communication, January 5, 2013).This statistic suggests lower participation rates in soccer among adult women as opposed to adult men on a macro scale. On a micro scale, this is the case for the South City Soccer Association (SCSA) - an adult recreational soccer league located in a midsize southeastern town in the United States. SCSA is the case on which this study is focused. To best understand the current state of coed adult recreational soccer and the state of SCSA, it is important to begin with a contextual background of adult recreational soccer on the national level in general and also one specific to the league's 30-year history. Employing qualitative methodologies in the form of participant-observation, interviews with past and present players, and self-reflexivity, I explore the socio-cultural challenges of `managing' coed soccer. Expanding upon the work of Henry and Comeaux (1999), I deconstruct a widely accepted system of coed soccer. With a focus on gender, power relations, and barriers to participation, I investigate underlying cultural themes such as the social construction of space, identities, and practices. My study follows Giardina and Newman (2011), who call for a form of Physical Cultural Studies (PCS) in which the researcher physically immerses herself in the field and collaborates with participants to produce a rich account filled with multiple voices and perspectives. I build upon PCS with a feminist version, one that is grounded in a feminist standpoint epistemology. As an adult female soccer player-researcher in the league, I incorporate self-reflexivity (Carrington, 2008) in an effort to unearth the silent but powerful systems at work in this space of physicality. My project attempts to understand why adult women are underrepresented in the adult league and assist sport managers of such leagues in increasing its female membership.
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Date Issued: 2013
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-7379
Format: Thesis

Title: Effects of Time-off on Performance in the National Football League.
Creator: Foreman, Jeremy J., Rodenberg, Ryan, Newman, Joshua, Kim, Yu Kyoum, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: Among National Football League (NFL) fans, coaches, and analysts, there are many different views on how time-off effects team performance. Differences in how time-off is allocated to teams has also become a source of controversy as debates continue regarding which teams received the least favorable schedules. This investigation was concerned with identifying how time-off prior to a game affects the final score, when is the best time to have a bye week, and why some teams may benefit more from...
Show moreAmong National Football League (NFL) fans, coaches, and analysts, there are many different views on how time-off effects team performance. Differences in how time-off is allocated to teams has also become a source of controversy as debates continue regarding which teams received the least favorable schedules. This investigation was concerned with identifying how time-off prior to a game affects the final score, when is the best time to have a bye week, and why some teams may benefit more from time-off than other teams. Twenty-one seasons were examined using ordinary least squares regressions to determine that there is at least about a .21 point advantage for each extra day of preparation time that a team receives prior to a game, relative to the time received by an opponent. This advantage is increased for older teams, less talented teams, and teams that are less familiar with their opponents. Unfamiliar opponents benefit from an additional day to prepare by about .38 points which accounts for approximately 2.6 points for a standard seven day bye week. Additionally, about 54.9 percent of teams defeat their opponents when coming off of a bye week by an average margin of victory of about 12.3 points compared to the approximately 8.7 points that non-bye week teams defeated bye week teams by on average.
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Date Issued: 2013
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-7380
Format: Thesis

Title: Performing Kiwi Cultural Identity in/Through American Rugby.
Creator: McLeod, Christopher, Newman, Joshua, James, Jeffery, Giardina, Michael, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: This is a study of the of Kiwi cultural identity as performed in and through American rugby. Drawing on the theories of Stuart Hall, Judith Butler and Sara Ahmed I look at how my New Zealand cultural identity and rugby playing body was (re)produced by myself and my teammates and coaches at the South City "Raiders" Rugby Football Club (SCRFC). The data for this study comes from my participant observation in SCRFC as a player for six months, during which I kept autoethnograpic field notes and...
Show moreThis is a study of the of Kiwi cultural identity as performed in and through American rugby. Drawing on the theories of Stuart Hall, Judith Butler and Sara Ahmed I look at how my New Zealand cultural identity and rugby playing body was (re)produced by myself and my teammates and coaches at the South City "Raiders" Rugby Football Club (SCRFC). The data for this study comes from my participant observation in SCRFC as a player for six months, during which I kept autoethnograpic field notes and conducted semi-structured conversational interviews. I discuss how my cultural identity project in this rugby space was primarily embodied and performed and that this resulted in pain playing a central part in my experiences. In this respect, what began as a study of cultural identity became a study of pain in the service of cultural identity. This leads me to theoretically explore pain as an empirical construct, arguing that pain must be considered both as a product and producer of cultural identities. As such I move to question Hall's predominantly discursive understanding of identity arguing that we need to move beyond textual reductionism to study cultural identities as subject to biological, affective and material (re)production, (re)constitution, and negotiation.
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Date Issued: 2013
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-7503
Format: Thesis

Title: Fighting Culture: Toward a Cultural Economy of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.
Creator: Armstrong, Michael E., Newman, Joshua, Giardina, Michael, Proffitt, Jennifer, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: This research looks to extend beyond the sports economic theory to present a cultural economic conception of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). Utilizing the theory of "spectacle" put forward by Guy Debord I conducted a critical discourse analysis of season one of the UFC's subsidiary realty TV show The Ultimate Fighter. Results indicated a specific construction with regard to the fighter-contestant identity as a member of the lower/working class and, as such, the positioning of the...
Show moreThis research looks to extend beyond the sports economic theory to present a cultural economic conception of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). Utilizing the theory of "spectacle" put forward by Guy Debord I conducted a critical discourse analysis of season one of the UFC's subsidiary realty TV show The Ultimate Fighter. Results indicated a specific construction with regard to the fighter-contestant identity as a member of the lower/working class and, as such, the positioning of the UFC as an emancipatory institution. Such construction is interpreted as creating cultural forms that have the potential to aid in the UFC's extraction of surplus value from its labor force.
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Date Issued: 2013
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-7276
Format: Thesis

Title: The Politics of Fundraising: An Organizational Ethnography of Intercollegiate Boosters.
Creator: Bass, Jordan R., Newman, Joshua I., Giardina, Michael D., James, Jeffrey D., Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: For this dissertation, I conducted an organizational ethnography of the Big South Boosters department. Executives within the department granted me access to their organizational operations over a four month time period. A June to September timeframe was chosen because it was identified by members of the department as the "busiest" and "most important" for their fundraising efforts. I elected to study booster department operations due to the complex inter- and intra-organizational dynamics of...
Show moreFor this dissertation, I conducted an organizational ethnography of the Big South Boosters department. Executives within the department granted me access to their organizational operations over a four month time period. A June to September timeframe was chosen because it was identified by members of the department as the "busiest" and "most important" for their fundraising efforts. I elected to study booster department operations due to the complex inter- and intra-organizational dynamics of this specific type of organization. Athletic departments are increasingly relying on external funding (e.g., tuition reallocations, student fees, public funding) to offset their operating costs. Funding athletic departments with university and student funds in consistently being met with resistance and is causing athletic department administrators to utilize alternative methods to cover the expenses (athletes, coaches, support staff, travel, etc.) associated with college athletics. Thus, booster departments, organizations charged with raising external funds from individuals and corporations, are as important as ever in modern college athletics landscape. For this research project, I became a participant (as) observer within the Big South Boosters department. Through ethnographic methods such as observation and interviews, I analyzed the organizational operations and dynamics that drive the representations of culture that were created by members of the department. Drawing upon a circuit of culture model, I examined the role that organizational processes (such as organizational communication, political skill, organizational politics, and organizational identification) played in the production and effectiveness of branding and fundraising activities.
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Date Issued: 2013
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-7290
Format: Thesis

Title: Perceived Price Fairness of Sport Consumers.
Creator: Jo, Ara, Kim, Yukyoum, James, Jeffrey, Wells, Janelle, Department of Sport Management, Florida State University
Abstract/Description: Price fairness is defined as the psychological judgment of the price as reasonable, just, and acceptable (Bolton, Warlop, & Alba, 2003; Maxwell, 2002; Xia, Monroe, & Cox, 2004). Although it has been investigated in various service business areas, there has been little research of price fairness in the sports business (Darke & Dahl, 2003; Kimes, 1994; Kahneman, Knetch, & Thaler, 1986a, 1986b; Radzi, Zahari, Muhammad, Aziz, & Ahmad, 2011). As sports consumers show unique consumption patterns,...
Show morePrice fairness is defined as the psychological judgment of the price as reasonable, just, and acceptable (Bolton, Warlop, & Alba, 2003; Maxwell, 2002; Xia, Monroe, & Cox, 2004). Although it has been investigated in various service business areas, there has been little research of price fairness in the sports business (Darke & Dahl, 2003; Kimes, 1994; Kahneman, Knetch, & Thaler, 1986a, 1986b; Radzi, Zahari, Muhammad, Aziz, & Ahmad, 2011). As sports consumers show unique consumption patterns, it is necessary to examine price fairness forsports consumers. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to examine price fairness of the college football ticket price for sports consumers based on level of trust. To test the hypothesis, a quantitative method was employed. Two scenario type questions were created, and an independent t-test was performed to test the hypothesis. The hypothesis failed to be rejected, as shown by the inferential statistical results (n=100). It was indicated that perceptions of price fairness of the college football ticket were not significantly different based on levels of trust. These findings contributed to an extension of existing research of price fairness into sports management areas.
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Date Issued: 2013
Identifier: FSU_migr_etd-7436
Format: Thesis

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